Natural Philosophy Wiki - User contributions [en]

Harry A Schmitz

2023-12-26T17:33:10Z

CriticalT:

{{Infobox scientist
| name = Harry A. Schmitz
| image = Harry A Schmitz 383.jpg
| alt = Harry A. Schmitz
| birth_date = {{birth date|1957|11|02|mf=y}}
| fields = [[Technical Marketing]]
| residence = Port Washington, NY, United States
| nationality = USA
| known_for = [[Fractal Universe]], [[Gravity]]
}}

I have been interested in the physical and philosophical nature of the universe ever since my father Harry W. Schmitz (HWS) (1923-1979) introduced me to the subject in the 1970s while I was still in high school.  I studied engineering at Stony Brook University and was graduated with a doctorate in Materials Science and Engineering in 1987 upon completion of a dissertation on synchrotron x-ray topography. I was an associate editor with Solid State Technology magazine from 1987-1992 and have since enjoyed a career in technical marketing. I am the proud father of Richard Schmitz, the 2007 New York State High School Outdoor Track & Field Champion in the 1600 meter event.

My purpose has been to promote the ideas that I learned from my father. With this in mind, I typeset (in LaTeX) key chapters of my father's treatise and made a PDF version of these chapters available online. In the 1990s, I simplified (or, some may say, embellished) a sampling of these original ideas by describing them in terms of a fractal cosmos. In recent years, I have authored several papers by myself, elaborating and explaining various ideas that were mostly described to me by my father.

My father's goal in life was to further Science (with a capital "S") and his deepest wish was that his ideas would someday be placed in a book where they might be found by a curious young person who was truly interested in understanding the nature of the universe. Using these hard won ideas as a starting point, perhaps such a person could discover a new source of energy or otherwise advance our understanding of the universe and our relationship to it. Thanks to the Internet and the Natural Philosophy Alliance, his goal is closer to being realized. I am grateful to the officers of the NPA and its follow-on, the Chappell Natural Philosophy Society, for providing a forum where this radical science could be presented to a receptive audience and for introducing me to a community of physics dissidents.

==Abstracts==

* 2008 - "[[A Galilean Multiverse? A Simple Physical Model of a Fractal Cosmos]]" ([http://www.naturalphilosophy.org/pdf/abstracts/abstracts_156.pdf Read in full])
* 2005 - "[[Time Standards and Particle Interactions in a Fractal Universe, with Remarks on Gravity]]" ([http://www.naturalphilosophy.org/pdf/abstracts/abstracts_155.pdf Read in full])
* 2004 - "[[Mechanics of Particles in the Fractal Cosmos]]" ([http://www.naturalphilosophy.org/pdf/abstracts/abstracts_1161.pdf Read in full])

==Books==

* 2003 - "[[The Physical and Philosophical Nature of the Universe]]" ([http://www.fractalcosmos.com Read in full])

[[Category:Scientist|Schmitz Harry]]
[[Category:Gravity|Schmitz Harry]]

Harry A Schmitz

2023-12-26T17:27:50Z

CriticalT: 1st minor edit

{{Infobox scientist
| name = Harry A. Schmitz
| image = Harry A Schmitz 383.jpg
| alt = Harry A. Schmitz
| birth_date = {{birth date|1957|11|02|mf=y}}
| fields = [[Technical Marketing]]
| residence = Port Washington, NY, United States
| nationality = USA
| known_for = [[Fractal Universe]], [[Gravity]]
}}

I have been interested in the physical and philosophical nature of the universe ever since my father Harry W. Schmitz (HWS) (1923-1979) introduced me to the subject in the 1970s while I was still in high school.  I studied engineering at Stony Brook University and was graduated with a doctorate in Materials Science and Engineering in 1987 upon completion of a dissertation on synchrotron x-ray topography. I was an associate editor with Solid State Technology magazine from 1987-1992 and have since enjoyed a career in technical marketing. I am the proud father of Richard Schmitz, the 2007 New York State High School Outdoor Track & Field Champion in the 1600 meter event.

My purpose has been to promote the ideas that I learned from my father. With this in mind, I typeset (in LaTeX) key chapters of my father's treatise and made a PDF version of these chapters available online. In the 1990s, I simplified (or, some may say, embellished) a sampling of these original ideas by describing them in terms of a fractal cosmos. In recent years, I have authored several papers by myself, elaborating and explaining various ideas that were mostly described to me by my father.

My father's goal in life was to further Science (with a capital "S") and his deepest wish was that his ideas would someday be placed in a book where they might be found by a curious young person who was truly interested in understanding the nature of the universe. Using these hard won ideas as a starting point, perhaps such a person could discover a new source of energy or otherwise advance our understanding of the universe and our relationship to it. Thanks to the Internet and the Natural Philosophy Alliance, his goal is closer to being realized. I am grateful to the officers of the Chappell Natural Philosophy Society for providing a forum where this radical science could be presented to a receptive audience and for introducing me to a community of physics dissidents.

==Abstracts==

* 2008 - "[[A Galilean Multiverse? A Simple Physical Model of a Fractal Cosmos]]" ([http://www.naturalphilosophy.org/pdf/abstracts/abstracts_156.pdf Read in full])
* 2005 - "[[Time Standards and Particle Interactions in a Fractal Universe, with Remarks on Gravity]]" ([http://www.naturalphilosophy.org/pdf/abstracts/abstracts_155.pdf Read in full])
* 2004 - "[[Mechanics of Particles in the Fractal Cosmos]]" ([http://www.naturalphilosophy.org/pdf/abstracts/abstracts_1161.pdf Read in full])

==Books==

* 2003 - "[[The Physical and Philosophical Nature of the Universe]]" ([http://www.fractalcosmos.com Read in full])

[[Category:Scientist|Schmitz Harry]]
[[Category:Gravity|Schmitz Harry]]

The Physical and Philosophical Nature of the Universe

2023-12-26T17:18:24Z

CriticalT: 2nd minor edit

{{Infobox book
| name = The Physical and Philosophical Nature of the Universe
| author = [[Harry A Schmitz]]
| published = 2003
| pages = 35
}}

In the 1970s, Harry W. Schmitz wrote a treatise, modestly titled "The Physical and Philosophical Nature of the Universe", in which he summarized the main results of his lifetime of research. He passed away suddenly in November 1979, a few weeks before his fifty-sixth birthday. He estimated that he was fifty years ahead of his time. He might be about right. After all, the times have changed. There is more talk than ever before of "multiverses" and dreams of a "unified field theory" or a "theory of everything" are still very much alive. The end of physics is nowhere in sight, yet it is widely acknowledged that not much more progress is possible without the introduction of radical ideas followed by a major paradigm shift.

Many of these ideas about the fractal cosmos originated more than 50 years ago with Harry Walter Schmitz (1923-1979). HWS served in the U.S. Army 12th Armored Division from December 1944 to May 1945 in France and Germany and was awarded the Bronze Star. He was graduated from Syracuse University in 1949 and worked as an engineer for the next 30 years obtaining eight patents. During that period, in his spare time, he extended and tested his theory against the theories and experimental results available to him. He left behind a considerable body of notes, including a remarkable treatise summarizing his major results.

HWS first attempted to teach his radical ideas to me approximately 35 years ago. My contribution here has been to simplify and generalize the model in part by describing some of the basic ideas in terms of a fractal object. I am grateful to my brother David Schmitz for his artistic rendition of several key concepts.

==Links to Purchase Book==

* [[http://www.fractalcosmos.com The Physical and Philosophical Nature of the Universe]][[Category:Book|physical philosophical nature universe]]

The Physical and Philosophical Nature of the Universe

2023-12-26T17:15:04Z

CriticalT: 1st minor edit

{{Infobox book
| name = The Physical and Philosophical Nature of the Universe
| author = [[Harry A Schmitz]]
| published = 2003
| pages = 35
}}

In the 1970s, Harry W. Schmitz wrote a treatise, modestly titled "The Physical and Philosophical Nature of the Universe", in which he summarized the main results of his lifetime of research. He passed away suddenly in November 1979, a few weeks before his fifty-sixth birthday. He estimated that he was fifty years ahead of his time. He might be about right. After all, the times have changed. There is more talk than ever before of ?multiverses? and dreams of a ?unified field theory? or a ?theory of everything? are still very much alive. The end of physics is nowhere in sight, yet it is widely acknowledged that not much more progress is possible without the introduction of radical ideas followed by a major paradigm shift.

Many of these ideas about the fractal cosmos originated more than 50 years ago with Harry Walter Schmitz (1923-1979). HWS served in the U.S. Army 12th Armored Division from December 1944 to May 1945 in France and Germany and was awarded the Bronze Star. He was graduated from Syracuse University in 1949 and worked as an engineer for the next 30 years obtaining eight patents. During that period, in his spare time, he extended and tested his theory against the theories and experimental results available to him. He left behind a considerable body of notes, including a remarkable treatise summarizing his major results.

HWS first attempted to teach his radical ideas to me approximately 35 years ago. My contribution here has been to simplify and generalize the model in part by describing some of the basic ideas in terms of a fractal object. I am grateful to my brother David Schmitz for his artistic rendition of several key concepts.

==Links to Purchase Book==

* [[http://www.fractalcosmos.com The Physical and Philosophical Nature of the Universe]][[Category:Book|physical philosophical nature universe]]

Proposal for Wavelength Meter in Motion to Test the Invariance of Light Speed

2021-02-17T22:33:03Z

CriticalT:

{{Infobox paper
| title = Proposal for Wavelength Meter in Motion to Test the Invariance of Light Speed
| url = [https://fcxxss.fornux.com/files/pdf/Finite_Theory.pdf Link to paper]
| author = [[Phil Bouchard]]
| published = 2016
| num_pages = 19
}}

'''Read the full paper''' [https://fcxxss.fornux.com/files/pdf/Finite_Theory.pdf here]

==Abstract==

A wavelength meter in motion is proposed to test directly the invariance of c as postulated by the Special Relativity, which is the first time this experiment is attempted. Until now it was assumed aether, if it was found, was a static substance having a unique reference frame from which entities were traveling through and therefore must not be present if tests proved otherwise. If we replace aether with graviton fields overlapping each other then we will have a reference frame that follows the rotation of the Earth. Thus to detect its presence, we will have to physically move against that rotating frame in order to detect a change in speed of light. This is done by sending a laser beam in the same direction of the velocity vector of the moving apparatus, capturing the difference in wavelength as we will demonstrate in this proposal.

[[Category:Scientific Paper|Scientific Paper]]

[[Category:Gravity]]
[[Category:Aether]]
[[Category:Relativity]]
[[Category:Unified Theory]]
[[Category:Cosmology]]
[[Category:Particle Physics]]

Phil Bouchard

2021-02-17T22:02:02Z

CriticalT: /* Abstracts */

{{Infobox scientist
| name = Phil Bouchard
| image = Phil Bouchard 2270.jpg
| alt = Phil Bouchard
| birth_date = {{birth date|1977|05|27|mf=y}}
| fields = [[Software Engineer]]
| residence = Gatineau, Quebec, Canada
| nationality = Canada
| known_for = [[Unified Field Theory]], [[Faster-Than-Light Speed]]
}}

Phil Bouchard was born in Ottawa, Canada, studied computer science at University of Sherbrooke, Canada, and since 2000 he worked in commercial software development for companies in Ottawa and San Diego.

He is also the author of an Open Source project and a shareware:

* Deterministic C++ memory manager of constant complexity: [https://github.com/philippeb8/root_ptr https://github.com/philippeb8/root_ptr]
* A scientific calculator featuring accelerated 3D graphics and non-linear regressions: [http://www.fornux.com/ http://www.fornux.com/]

==Recent Scientific Work==

Phil Bouchard has been developing a new model for physics call Finite Theory which is described in full in the book of that name in the Books section below. Finite Theory contends that:

a) the mass of the real universe is 738x the mass of the visible universe;

b) the position of the Moon is 7 meters farther away than what we think it is;

c) Newton's laws are incomplete because the centrifugal force at the highest scale of the universe is invalid;

d) we can get more precise GPS computations;

e) its validity can be determined by a proposed experiment aboard the ISS

==Abstracts==

* 2020 - "[[Proposal for Wavelength Meter in Motion to Test the Invariance of Light Speed]]" ([https://fcxxss.fornux.com/files/pdf/Finite_Theory.pdf Read in full])
* 2015 - "[[Unified Field Theory - Finite]]"
* 2013 - "[[Proposal for Bidirectional Light Speed Meter in Motion to Test the Invariance of c]]" ([http://finitetheory.com/files/experiment.pdf Read in full])
* 2012 - "[[Finite Theory of the Universe, Dark Matter Disproof and Faster-Than-Light Speed]]" ([http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1875389212025126 Read in full])

==Books==

* 2020 - "[[Finite Theory]]" [https://www.amazon.com/dp/B08R7VDJDJ/ref=cm_sw_em_r_mt_dp_37XVRP8K2DNE1ZPXWHXR Read in full]
* 2014 - "[[Imagine if Einstein was Wrong]]" ([http://amzn.com/B00MADI5D4 Read in full])

[[Category:Scientist|Bouchard Phil]]

Phil Bouchard

2021-02-17T19:52:52Z

CriticalT: /* Recent Scientific Work */

{{Infobox scientist
| name = Phil Bouchard
| image = Phil Bouchard 2270.jpg
| alt = Phil Bouchard
| birth_date = {{birth date|1977|05|27|mf=y}}
| fields = [[Software Engineer]]
| residence = Gatineau, Quebec, Canada
| nationality = Canada
| known_for = [[Unified Field Theory]], [[Faster-Than-Light Speed]]
}}

Phil Bouchard was born in Ottawa, Canada, studied computer science at University of Sherbrooke, Canada, and since 2000 he worked in commercial software development for companies in Ottawa and San Diego.

He is also the author of an Open Source project and a shareware:

* Deterministic C++ memory manager of constant complexity: [https://github.com/philippeb8/root_ptr https://github.com/philippeb8/root_ptr]
* A scientific calculator featuring accelerated 3D graphics and non-linear regressions: [http://www.fornux.com/ http://www.fornux.com/]

==Recent Scientific Work==

Phil Bouchard has been developing a new model for physics call Finite Theory which is described in full in the book of that name in the Books section below. Finite Theory contends that:

a) the mass of the real universe is 738x the mass of the visible universe;

b) the position of the Moon is 7 meters farther away than what we think it is;

c) Newton's laws are incomplete because the centrifugal force at the highest scale of the universe is invalid;

d) we can get more precise GPS computations;

e) its validity can be determined by a proposed experiment aboard the ISS

==Abstracts==

* 2020 - "[[Proposal for Wavelength Meter in Motion to Test the Invariance of Light Speed]]" ([http://www.naturalphilosophy.org/pdf/abstracts/abstracts_paperlink_7400.pdf Read in full])
* 2015 - "[[Unified Field Theory - Finite]]"
* 2013 - "[[Proposal for Bidirectional Light Speed Meter in Motion to Test the Invariance of c]]" ([http://finitetheory.com/files/experiment.pdf Read in full])
* 2012 - "[[Finite Theory of the Universe, Dark Matter Disproof and Faster-Than-Light Speed]]" ([http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1875389212025126 Read in full])

==Books==

* 2020 - "[[Finite Theory]]" [https://www.amazon.com/dp/B08R7VDJDJ/ref=cm_sw_em_r_mt_dp_37XVRP8K2DNE1ZPXWHXR Read in full]
* 2014 - "[[Imagine if Einstein was Wrong]]" ([http://amzn.com/B00MADI5D4 Read in full])

[[Category:Scientist|Bouchard Phil]]

Phil Bouchard

2021-02-17T19:40:39Z

CriticalT: /* Books */

{{Infobox scientist
| name = Phil Bouchard
| image = Phil Bouchard 2270.jpg
| alt = Phil Bouchard
| birth_date = {{birth date|1977|05|27|mf=y}}
| fields = [[Software Engineer]]
| residence = Gatineau, Quebec, Canada
| nationality = Canada
| known_for = [[Unified Field Theory]], [[Faster-Than-Light Speed]]
}}

Phil Bouchard was born in Ottawa, Canada, studied computer science at University of Sherbrooke, Canada, and since 2000 he worked in commercial software development for companies in Ottawa and San Diego.

He is also the author of an Open Source project and a shareware:

* Deterministic C++ memory manager of constant complexity: [https://github.com/philippeb8/root_ptr https://github.com/philippeb8/root_ptr]
* A scientific calculator featuring accelerated 3D graphics and non-linear regressions: [http://www.fornux.com/ http://www.fornux.com/]

==Recent Scientific Work==

Phil Bouchard has been developing a new model for physics call Finite Theory which is described in full in the book of that name in the Books section below. Finite Theory contends that:

a) the mass of the real universe to be 738x the mass of the visible universe;

b) the position of the Moon is 7 meters father away than what we think it really is;

c) Newton's laws are incomplete because the centrifugal force at the highest scale of the universe is invalid;

d) we can get more precise GPS computation;

e) its validity can be determined by a proposed experiment aboard the ISS

==Abstracts==

* 2020 - "[[Proposal for Wavelength Meter in Motion to Test the Invariance of Light Speed]]" ([http://www.naturalphilosophy.org/pdf/abstracts/abstracts_paperlink_7400.pdf Read in full])
* 2015 - "[[Unified Field Theory - Finite]]"
* 2013 - "[[Proposal for Bidirectional Light Speed Meter in Motion to Test the Invariance of c]]" ([http://finitetheory.com/files/experiment.pdf Read in full])
* 2012 - "[[Finite Theory of the Universe, Dark Matter Disproof and Faster-Than-Light Speed]]" ([http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1875389212025126 Read in full])

==Books==

* 2020 - "[[Finite Theory]]" [https://www.amazon.com/dp/B08R7VDJDJ/ref=cm_sw_em_r_mt_dp_37XVRP8K2DNE1ZPXWHXR Read in full]
* 2014 - "[[Imagine if Einstein was Wrong]]" ([http://amzn.com/B00MADI5D4 Read in full])

[[Category:Scientist|Bouchard Phil]]

Phil Bouchard

2021-02-17T19:36:10Z

CriticalT: Added the Recent Scientific Work section

{{Infobox scientist
| name = Phil Bouchard
| image = Phil Bouchard 2270.jpg
| alt = Phil Bouchard
| birth_date = {{birth date|1977|05|27|mf=y}}
| fields = [[Software Engineer]]
| residence = Gatineau, Quebec, Canada
| nationality = Canada
| known_for = [[Unified Field Theory]], [[Faster-Than-Light Speed]]
}}

Phil Bouchard was born in Ottawa, Canada, studied computer science at University of Sherbrooke, Canada, and since 2000 he worked in commercial software development for companies in Ottawa and San Diego.

He is also the author of an Open Source project and a shareware:

* Deterministic C++ memory manager of constant complexity: [https://github.com/philippeb8/root_ptr https://github.com/philippeb8/root_ptr]
* A scientific calculator featuring accelerated 3D graphics and non-linear regressions: [http://www.fornux.com/ http://www.fornux.com/]

==Recent Scientific Work==

Phil Bouchard has been developing a new model for physics call Finite Theory which is described in full in the book of that name in the Books section below. Finite Theory contends that:

a) the mass of the real universe to be 738x the mass of the visible universe;

b) the position of the Moon is 7 meters father away than what we think it really is;

c) Newton's laws are incomplete because the centrifugal force at the highest scale of the universe is invalid;

d) we can get more precise GPS computation;

e) its validity can be determined by a proposed experiment aboard the ISS

==Abstracts==

* 2020 - "[[Proposal for Wavelength Meter in Motion to Test the Invariance of Light Speed]]" ([http://www.naturalphilosophy.org/pdf/abstracts/abstracts_paperlink_7400.pdf Read in full])
* 2015 - "[[Unified Field Theory - Finite]]"
* 2013 - "[[Proposal for Bidirectional Light Speed Meter in Motion to Test the Invariance of c]]" ([http://finitetheory.com/files/experiment.pdf Read in full])
* 2012 - "[[Finite Theory of the Universe, Dark Matter Disproof and Faster-Than-Light Speed]]" ([http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1875389212025126 Read in full])

==Books==

* 2020 - "[[Finite Theory]]" ([Amazon.com Read in full])
* 2014 - "[[Imagine if Einstein was Wrong]]" ([http://amzn.com/B00MADI5D4 Read in full])

[[Category:Scientist|Bouchard Phil]]

Phil Bouchard

2021-02-17T19:15:35Z

CriticalT: /* Books */ Adding A Book

{{Infobox scientist
| name = Phil Bouchard
| image = Phil Bouchard 2270.jpg
| alt = Phil Bouchard
| birth_date = {{birth date|1977|05|27|mf=y}}
| fields = [[Software Engineer]]
| residence = Gatineau, Quebec, Canada
| nationality = Canada
| known_for = [[Unified Field Theory]], [[Faster-Than-Light Speed]]
}}

Phil Bouchard was born in Ottawa, Canada, studied computer science at University of Sherbrooke, Canada, and since 2000 he worked in commercial software development for companies in Ottawa and San Diego.

He is also the author of an Open Source project and a shareware:

* Deterministic C++ memory manager of constant complexity: [https://github.com/philippeb8/root_ptr https://github.com/philippeb8/root_ptr]
* A scientific calculator featuring accelerated 3D graphics and non-linear regressions: [http://www.fornux.com/ http://www.fornux.com/]

==Abstracts==

* 2020 - "[[Proposal for Wavelength Meter in Motion to Test the Invariance of Light Speed]]" ([http://www.naturalphilosophy.org/pdf/abstracts/abstracts_paperlink_7400.pdf Read in full])
* 2015 - "[[Unified Field Theory - Finite]]"
* 2013 - "[[Proposal for Bidirectional Light Speed Meter in Motion to Test the Invariance of c]]" ([http://finitetheory.com/files/experiment.pdf Read in full])
* 2012 - "[[Finite Theory of the Universe, Dark Matter Disproof and Faster-Than-Light Speed]]" ([http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1875389212025126 Read in full])

==Books==

* 2020 - "[[Finite Theory]]" ([Amazon.com Read in full])
* 2014 - "[[Imagine if Einstein was Wrong]]" ([http://amzn.com/B00MADI5D4 Read in full])

[[Category:Scientist|Bouchard Phil]]

Phil Bouchard

2021-02-17T18:46:53Z

CriticalT: /* Abstracts */ 2016 ----> 2020

Vivian Pope

2021-02-09T14:29:50Z

CriticalT: /* This was written later */

{{Infobox scientist
| name = Vivian Pope
| image = Vivian Pope 292.jpg
| alt = Vivian Pope
| birth_date = {{birth date|1931|01|22|mf=y}}
| death_date = {{birth date|2012|03|24|mf=y}}
| fields = [[Hon. Professor of Relativistic Quantum Physics]], [[. Member of the Scientific Advisory Board]], [[Internati]]
| residence = Swansea., South Wales, United Kingdom
| nationality = Welsh
| known_for = [[Relativity]], [[Space]], [[Time]], [[Motion]], [[IAAD]], [[Mach's Principle]]
}}

'''N. Vivian (Viv) Pope''' worked for almost twenty years in the telecommunications industry, leaving to become a mature-age student at the University of Wales, Bangor. Graduating in the Philosophy of Science, he then became a lecturer at the Burton-on-Trent Further Education College, Staffordshire where he taught Liberal Studies and Philosophy. He was also tutor/counselor for the Open University. He took early retirement from these posts in order to concentrate on his researches into the philosophical foundations of modern physics. He has published numerous papers and books on the subject, both on his own and in collaboration with his younger colleague, Dr. Anthony Osborne.

Here is his fascinating story in his own words:

I am now (in 2011) eighty years old, physically disabled, but not mentally, thank God! This disability follows from an all-too vigorous young life (weightlifting, motor-racing - plus crashing) wrestling and general lunacy), all this in an eminently individualistic (i.e., un-clubbable) capacity.

==Early education==

As you may gather, I was a rather unruly youth. Educationally speaking, I was a 'dropout' - a 'dissident', you might say, right from the very start. During the Second World War, at the age of ten I was evacuated with my younger sister away from our home town of Swansea which was being heavily bombed. Separated from my sister, I was sent to a small country school in mid-Wales where the teaching was in the Welsh language. I am very Welsh as my DNA attests, but my family (apart from my maternal grandparents) did not speak the language. In the industrial town of Swansea. the English language was predominant, and I was not encouraged to speak my mother tongue. Thus, in the entirely Welsh-Speaking community into which I had been precipitated, I became educationally disadvantaged. The school was in Gelli Aur *(Welsh for 'Golden Grove'), and that is where I first learned to become an expert in truancy. In short, while everyone else was at school I went 'walkabout' in what I later described in a recent book on that era, as 'God's country'.

This expertise in truancy continued when I returned to my hometown, so that I twice failed my entrance examination for Grammar School (High School). However, I passed an intelligence test which, luckily for me, had no academic content to it. Thus, in 1943, I became a student at the Junior Technical School (JTS), Swansea. The workshop practice with files,  lathes, shaping machines and so on was much to my liking; but when it came to academic, sit-down-and-learn subjects, Physics and Chemistry in particular, being desperately disappointed and bored with the way these subjects were taught, I found a way of escaping school altogether. In this way I gained my own brand of education in picking up interesting bits and pieces of junk in the local scrap-yards and testing my home-made radios with a fellow escapee in the same park (Cwmdonkin) that our famous countryman, the poet Dylan Thomas frequented and has written about. In general, then, from my earlier days, my days were occupied by inventing things and, on occasions, playing football with my friends, including my yet-to-become-famous, Cwmbwrla schoolmate, footballer John Charles. From then on, Most of my time was spent in physical and generally exploratory, sometimes dangerous, pursuits with a Forestfach gang of roustabouts of the same ilk. (The Welsh 'Cwmbwrla', by the way, means 'Valley of the Pure Voice'., and Fforestfach means 'Little Forest').

==Marriage and family==

At school, the sorts of pupils I most implacably detested were the scholars, the ones with the academic promise and aspirations. And then, in 1946, I met one of these detestable scholars, an Oxbridge hopeful named Mary Thomas, from the 'upper-crust' Girls' High School in Swansea. Through her, I obtained, by stealth and tender persuasion, the education in literacy and arts which I needed but could never have obtained through Educational coercion. We were married in 1953, she at twenty and I at twenty-two. We now have three daughters and eight grandchildren.

From the Tech, I was somehow transferred, at sixteen, to the Dynevor Grammar school from which, after half a term, I left to become a trainee draughtsman at the local steelworks (Cwmfelin, meaning Valley of the Mill ). After six months as an engineering draughtsman, I followed my father into the telecommunications industry, where I worked as a telephone engineer for eighteen years, interrupted by two years National Service in the Royal Air Force (1950-52) as a Radio Direction-finding and Air Traffic Control Operator, plus unofficial improver of the radio equipment. After the RAF I returned to my job, during which time my wife had begun her teaching career. After I left the RAF, through my father, Donald Edward Pope, who was an excellent male role-model and much respected amateur astronomer, as well as being a philosopher and far-sighted liberal thinker, I became interested in Astronomy and it was through membership of the Astronomical Society, at the Royal Institution, Swansea, that I was introduced to Relativity Theory.

This galvanized me. It seemed absurd to be told that time was not the same everywhere in the way I had somehow automatically assumed. Plaguing my father about it, in exasperation, no doubt, he told me to 'ask Einstein'. I left it to Mary to find Einstein's address. This she did and, naively, I wrote to Einstein asking him to explain something which, as I learned afterward, was known as the 'Clock Paradox'. To everyone's amazement; - not least my father's - Einstein sent me a very encouraging reply which is now kept as a treasured item in the Swansea County Archives: [http://www.swansea.gov.uk/westglamorganarchives http://www.swansea.gov.uk/westglamorganarchives]. to be read only under staff supervision. This has appeared several times in the media including, most recently, on television where it was valued as some thousands of pounds.

 

During these years, continuing my work as a telecoms engineer, I embarked on the course set for me by Einstein's reply to my question, which at the time, I had failed to understand. Eventually, I came to realize that if what one person could discover about nature was true, then that same truth should be discoverable by others in different ways, otherwise that discovery could not be an entirely objective one.

'''A seminal, life-changing discovery'''

And this, indeed, is what I did discover; another way of reaching the same conclusion as Einstein regarding the dilation of time with relative motion. This was not by the conventional and highly complex mathematical-physics means of 'electrodynamics' and 'light-velocity' but by the very much simpler, purely graphical means of the geometry which I had learned to use as an engineering draftsman. This confirmed, independently, what Einstein had said in his letter, and concurred in correspondence with Herman Bondi, the Mathematical Physicist and Astronomer, that there is no such thing as the 'clock paradox'. Most significant, however, was my discovery of the fact that the same conclusions that Einstein had come to, regarding space and time could be deduced without reference to his  mystifying concept of light having a 'velocity' which is constant, not only to space itself but also relative to all observers moving or stationary within that space. (This was also concurred by Bondi.) In other words, my lateral-thinking alternative showed that Einstein's Second Axiom of Special Relativity is redundant, hence so is all the conventional talk about 'electromagnetic propagation' in relation to relativity. It was this discovery which led, later, to my work on 'quantum instantaneity'. (lately, an article appeared in New Scientist reporting that more than just a few mainstream physicists have come to the same conclusion (See 'Shedding Light on Light', N.S., 1/11/08, pp. 28-31).

==University==

In my pursuit of this subject, in extramural contacts with various members of the Physics and Philosophy departments of Swansea University, I was invited to attend staff-student seminars. This was on an informal, day-release, basis in which I continued my job in telecommunications whilst getting involved in discussions about Wittgenstein and Linguistic Analysis. Then, in 1965, two of the Swansea University lecturers recommended me to the Principal of the Workers Education College in North Wales (Coleg Harlech) and, with my wife's encouragement, I became a student at that college. There, I set aside my technical training and studied Arts subjects, such as Philosophy, Psychology and Sociology, plus History of Ideas and Literature. Despite my earlier leanings towards scientific pursuits I took to all this like a duck to water and, in 1966 I was invited to study for a degree at the University College of North Wales, Bangor. Having moved my family to that region while I pursued my studies, in 1969 I graduated with [http://www.poams.org/10_seminal_publications.html Honours] in [http://www.poams.org/10_seminal_publications.html Philosophy of Science], with ancillary subjects Logic, Sociology and Psychology. For the following year I stayed on at University to gain a teaching certificate n Adult Education, during which time I also started on my Dissertation for the further degree

In 1970 I became a teacher of these subjects, in Adult Education, at Burton-on-Trent Technical College in the Midlands of England. This became a centre for the then nascent Open University for which I became a Tutor, Counselor and Study-Centre Coordinator. (as already explained on the NPA 'Pope' page).

A few years later I became involved with MENSA, who published an article of mine entitled 'The Overdue Revolution' (see [http://www.poams.org/ http://www.poams.org/] in the section: 'Seminal Publications'). This enjoyed a good reception among the membership of that organization, to the extent that I was invited to subscribe my ideas on a regular basis to the MENSA Science-Interest Group, SPACESIGNL, which I did for some time thereafter.

==CERN==

In 1975 I had the opportunity of visiting CERN the atomic research laboratory in Geneva. In the capacity of an editor/reporter for a philosophical 'Viewspaper', I interviewed, among others, the Director, V. F. Weisskopf, T. D. Lee (discoverer of the 'meson') and John Bell (of 'Bell's Inequalities' fame). I also observed some of the experiments. All of this I found profoundly enlightening. (My report on it was written up in phi the Philosophical Viewspaper: ISSN 0305-5833.)

==Natural Philosophy==

In 1990 I was invited to do a talk in Imperial College, London. This was for the PIRT (Physical Interpretations of Relativity Theory) association. My talk was entitled 'Instantaneous Relativistic Action-at-a-Distance'. An American professor who had attended the talk insisted on my publishing it, which I did, and persuaded me to attend the Cambridge based Alternative Natural Philosophy Association (ANPA). In this Association, I have presented many papers and became Secretary and Editor of the annual ANPA Newsletter (ISSN 1358-2240). I served in this capacity for about five years until I was forced to resign these posts due to ill health. Later, as a contributing 'back bencher', so to speak, a new President of the Association sought to ban me for being 'too Socratic'. (The 'Socratic Method' is to discover truth by the logical elimination of error. Pointing out errors in people's theories by logical reductio ad absurdum (reduction to absurdity) upsets people and is what led to Socrates, the Father of Natural Philosophy, being executed.)

==Westminster==

But now comes 'the crunch' which, as I'm sure you will see, speaks volumes for the need of innovative thinking in education. In our concern for this, as teachers, my wife and I were invited, under the auspices of a Liberal Member of Parliament, Clement Freud, to attend meetings in Westminster, London, where we presented our case for encouraging creative free-thinking in our high schools and universities (de-schooling, or anti-scholasticism as it was called). Against the conventional mainstream, with its emphasis on the testing and examining of students for proficiency in the attainment of Educationally preconceived 'mostly commercial ' ends, it was, as we eventually told ourselves, 'like trying to swim up a waterfall'.

'''Falling foul of the Educational Arts-Science apartheid'''

Nothing was more indicative of this mainstream pressure towards educational conformity than what happened when, in 1971, I presented my Masters Thesis for examination. In my run-up to this thesis I first had to present to my professor at Bangor, C. K. W Mundle, a dissertation for pre-evaluation and guidance. My thesis was entitled 'A Philosophical Re-Examination of Some Present Physical Concepts' (1972). This proposed a philosophical merger of relativistic and quantum physics; but far from encouraging me to present this truly innovative piece of work, I was warned that I 'should not presume to tell physicists what they should and shouldn't do. 'If I persisted on that course,' I was firmly told, 'I would inevitably fail.'

And, inevitably, I suppose, it did fail - twice (1972 and 1973). Referred to Professor Sir Karl Popper for a second opinion, he declared that 'it was not the thesis that had failed but its examiners'. In any event, it was the ideas developed in that thesis which have since been advanced in international conferences and in what some people have dubbed my 'heretical' books and papers. This was in my later connection, from 1982, with Keele University, UK as a Research Associate of the Mathematics Department. The ongoing Physics/Mathematics collaboration with Dr, Anthony Osborne, in that department has become known as POAMS, the Pope-Osborne Angular Momentum Synthesis (see [http://www.poams.org/ http://www.poams.org/]).

'''Doctor or Not? (Now Professor)'''

==This was written Earlier==

Although I am often referred to as 'Doctor', the Doctorate under which my researches with Osborne in the Mathematics Department at Keele University were at first conducted soon ran into deep trouble, This was because my thesis, by its very nature, fell between the two very same warring Educational factions of Arts and Science that it sought to unite. For instance, asked by the Maths Department to take oversight of the Philosophical content of my work with Osborne, the Philosophy Department declined. This was on the basis that as an Arts department they felt 'not competent' to judge my peculiar admixture of Mathematical Physics and Philosophy. So although I am assured that my work is well over the standard required for a Doctorate, as an attempt to merge two conventionally separate disciplines it falls into an academic limbo where it is conventionally unclassifiable, hence un-examinable, So my academic advisers tell me that I should just 'forget it'. 'Doctor', 'Mister' or whatever, they advise, is quite okay, although in the end I personally prefer just plain 'Viv Pope'. But that, too, has been frowned upon by some of my colleagues as being 'too informal' for publications purposes. So I've given up on it and let it come as it may. The moral seems to be that there are no doctorates awarded for heresy, which means that my status in the Educational establishment, even as a bona fide lecturer, administrator and researcher, has always been equivocal, hence a 'running sore' of embarrassment to The System.

==This was written later==

Since the above was written I have been made an Honourary Professor of Relativistic Quiantum Physics and Member of the Scientific Advisory Board, International Institute of Theoretical Physics and Mathematics,Einstein-Galilei, Prato, Italy.

In sum, then, I am honoured to be referred to in academic circles as one of the 'top heretics on this planet' or, in some sectors, as 'The Sh**-Stirring Welshman'. I am honoured because it is a truism that all the significant advances in science have been 'heresies' in their day. My heresy is that I have sought to break the Arts-Science deadlock in contemporary Education by re-connecting Physics with Philosophy in what was originally known as Natural Philosophy. This is by earthing the conceptually airborne Relativity of Einstein in the quantised relativism of Einstein's philosophical mentor Mach. The result is a form of neo-Machian physics-philosophy known as Normal Realism, which, as compared to the theoretical extravagances of Modern Physics and Cosmology, has been called 'a triumph of commonsense'.

'''Recent:'''

In 2010 I was contacted by Masood Sanati, a physicist at Tehran University requesting my views on the mysteries of Charge Distribution. After much discussion on the subject he invited me to Iran to give some talks on the subject and to tutor his students. This was out of the question, not least duev tom my and Mary's health problems, but Sanati was very persistent in trying to get me an award for my work from the Khwarizmi Foundation. He then recommended me to Dr. Christian Corda who was setting up the International Institute for Theoretical Physics and Mathematics Einstein-Galilei at Prato in Italy. As a result, I am now a member of the Scientific Advisory Board with the title of Honorary Professor of Relativistic Quantum Physics.

More recently, in my new official status of Professor of Relativistic Quantum Physics in Prato Italy (see above) I am engaged in a an experimental project entitled, '''An experimental proof of predicted Changes in Newton's ?Gravitational Constant' G for Spinning Bodies'.'''

'''Posthumous Note:''' Although Prof. Pope passed away in 2012, experimental analysis of predicted changes in Newton’s ‘Gravitational Constant’ G for spinning bodies is continuing and with positive results.

'''Articles:'''

# 1986 'Abstract: Is Relativity Quantized?' Speculations in Science and Technology, Vol. 9, No. 4, p. 242.
# 1987 'A New Approach to Special Relativity' (with A.D. Osborne). International Journal of Mathematical Education in Science and Technology, Vol. 18, No. 2, pp. 191-198.
# 1987 (April) 'The Overdue Revolution'. MENSA, pp. 28-29.
# 1988 'Arts View of Science'. Times Higher Educational Supplement (Letter, November 11th.)
# 1988 'Floating Free'. Times Higher Ed. Suppl. (Ltr. Dec. 23rd.)
# 1989 'Experiments in God's Eye'. Times Higher Ed. Suppl. (Article, Feb. 2nd.)
# 1989 'The New World Synthesis'. Philosophia Mathematica (II) No. 1, Vol. 4, pp. 23-28.
# 1989 'Relativity is Kids' Stuff'. School Science Review, Vol. 70 (253) pp. 86-87.
# 1990 'Changing Philosophy'. Times Higher Ed. Suppl. (Ltr. May 4th.)
# 1990 'The Quantum is Kids' Stuff'. School Sci. Rev. Vol. 71, pp. 105-107.
# 1990 School Sci. Rev. (Forum) Vol.72, No. 258, p. 161.
# 1990 'Instantaneous Relativistic Action-at-a-Distance' (with A.D. Osborne). Proceedings of the 2nd BSPS conference: Physical Interpretations of Relativity (PIRT) pp. 460-488.
# 1992 'Relativity and Realism' (with A.D. Osborne). Proceedings of the 3rd BSPS conference: PIRT, pp. 281-287.
# 1992 'The Action-at-a-Distance Spectrum' (with A.D. Osborne). Proceedings of the 3rd BSPS conference: PIRT pp. 253-280.
# 1992 'Instantaneous Relativistic Action-at-a-Distance' (with A. D Osborne). Physics Essays, Vol. 5, No. 3, pp. 409-421.
# 1992 'The Sequential Paradigm', Proc. of the 13th Annual International Meeting of the Alternative Natural Philosophy Association (ANPA), Sept. 1991, pp. 55-65.
# 1993 'An Alternative Natural Philosophy', Proc of the 14th Annual International Meeting of ANPA, Sept 1992, pp. 113-130.
# 1994 'Normal Realism: A Challenge to Physicists'. Proc. of the 15th Annual International Meeting of ANPA, Sept. 1993, pp. 111-115.
# Also 'A Rustic Rediscovery of Relativity', pp. 116-130.
# 1994 'A Critical Review of the PIRT Conferences to Date'. Proc. of the 4th BSPS Conference: PIRT, pp 257-272.
# 1995 'In Search of the ANPA Philosophy'. ANPA Newsletter No. 15, ISSN 1358-2240, pp. 6-10.
# 1995 'Instantaneous Gravitational and Inertial Action-at-a-Distance' (with A.D. Osborne). Physics Essays, Vol. 8, No. 3, pp. 384-397.
# 1995 'The Lingering Death of Western Dualism', Proc. of the 16th Annual International Meeting of ANPA, ISBN 0952621509, pp. 117-121. Also 'The Language of Light Velocity', pp. 122-134.
# 1996 'The Two Aspects of Special Relativity', ANPA Newsletter, No. 16, p. 10. Also 'Empiricism and the Quantum', pp. 8-16.
# 1996 'Copenhagen, Yes or No?' Apeiron, Vol. 3, No.1, pp. 20-21.
# 1996 'A Philosophical Analysis of the Concept of Motion in Relation to Action-at-a-Distance', Apeiron, Special Issue, ed. M. W. Evans. (accepted but did not appear, due to a difference of opinion with editor).
# 1996 'A Response' (to M. W. Evans), Apeiron, '@ Issue' section, Vol. 3, No 3-4, pp. 124-125.
# 1996 'The Dogma of the Photon', in 'Philosophies', the Proceedings of the 17th Annual International Meeting of the Alternative Natural Philosophy Association, pp. 175-188.
# 1997, 'A Quantum-Digital Theory of Light', in The Present Status of the Quantum Theory of Light, Eds. Jeffers, Roy, Vigier and Hunter, (Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht, Netherlands.)
# 1997 'Is ANPA an Altogether Non-Philosophical Association?' Newsletter 17 of the Alternative Natural Philosophy Association (ed. N.V. Pope) 12-14.
# 1997 'The Gateway to Paradox' and 'The Cinematic Model of Quantum Touching' in Mereologies, the Proceedings of the 18th International Meeting of the Alternative Natural Philosophy Association., 62-66, 134-135.
# 1998 'Shedding Light on Light' in Causality and Locality in Modern Physics, Eds. G. Hunter, et al,, Kluwer, Academic Publishers, Dordrecht NL, pp 187-194.
# 1998 'A Relativistic Quantum Phenomenology', Proceedings of the 5th International Conference; Problems of Space, Time and Motion, St. Petersburg, Russia. June, 1998.
# 1998 'Solving the "c" Conundrum of the Velocity of Light Relative to the Vacuum', Proceedings of the Physical Interpretations of Relativity Theory, London, September 1998.
# 1999 'Newton is Dead, Long Live Newton', in Instantaneous Action-at-a-Distance in Modern Physics: Pro and Contra, Editors: A. E. Chubykalo, Viv Pope and R. Smirnov-Rueda, published by Nova Science. NY.
# 1999. 'The Complete Physics Heresy', Galilean Electrodynamics, ed. C. Kolb-Whitney, Mass. USA.
# 2000. 'Too Many Theories, Too Few Syntheses', Physical Interpretations of Relativity Theory VII Proceedings, ed. M. C. Duffy.
# 2000. 'A Logical Reconciliation of Einstein and Newton or a Synthesis Relativity and Quantum Theory', Journal of New Energy, Ed. Hal Fox, Vol. 5, No. 1.
# 2001. 'An Angular Momentum Synthesis of Gravitational and Electrostatic Forces' in Physics as a Science Symposium Proceedings, publ. in Journal of New Energy, Vol. 5, No. 3.
# 2001. 'The Tantalising Two-Slit Experiment' in Recent Advances in Relativity Theory, Vol. 2.: Material Interpretations, Es. M. C. Duffy and M. Wegener, Hadronic Press, Florida, USA.
# 2001. 'Umbala: a Polemic Against Jargon Addiction in Modern Science', Proceedings of the 22nd annual International Meeting of the Alternative Natural Philosophy Association Ed. Arleta Griffor, publ by ANPA.
# Osborne , A. D. and Pope, N. V., 'An Angular Momentum Synthesis of "Gravitational" and "Electrostatic" Forces', Galilean Electrodynamics, Vol. 14, Special Issue 1, Spring 2003, pp. 9-19.
# 2008, A Critical Perspective on Modern Physics: a talk delivered at the PIRT Conference, Imperial College, London, UK Sept. 2008. 'NASA's Need of New Physics'.

==Books==

* 1999 Instantaneous Action At A Distance in Modern Physics, Pro and Contra, Eds.: Andrew E Chubykalo, Viv Pope and Roman Smirnov-Rueda, Nova Science NY, USA.
* 2005, Immediate Distant Action and Correlation in Modern Physics: Eds. N. Vivian Pope, Andrew E. Chubykalo and Alan F. T. Winfield, Edwin Mellen Press, Lewiston, NY, USA.
* 2007, Light-Speed, Gravitation and Quantum Instantaneity, Anthony D. Osborne and N. Vivian Pope, phi Philosophical Enterprises, Swansea, UK. ISBN 0-9503790-6-9.
* 2010 Wondering in the Wilderness, A. M. and N. V. Pope, phi, Swansea, ISBN 978-0-9505790-7-4.
* 2010 God's Country, N. Vivian Pope, phi, Swansea, ISBN 978-0-9503790-8-5
* 2011 A Critical Review of Contemporary Physics and Cosmology, Pope and Osborne, (to appear).
* 2016 Einstein's Lost Legacy: A Critical Review of Contemporary Physics and Cosmology, N. V. Pope and A D Osborne

==Abstracts==

* 2011 - "[[Extraordinary Physics, or Is Modern Theoretical Physics Just a Teetering 'House of Cards'?
]]" ([http://www.naturalphilosophy.org/pdf/abstracts/abstracts_6180.pdf Read in full])
* 2009 - "[[Extraordinary Physics, or Is Modern Theoretical Physics Just a Teetering 'House of Cards'?]]" ([http://www.naturalphilosophy.org/pdf/abstracts/abstracts_2785.pdf Read in full])
* 2009 - "[[NASA's Missing Spin: The Pioneer and Missing Mass Anomalies]]" ([http://www.naturalphilosophy.org/pdf/abstracts/abstracts_1852.pdf Read in full])
* 2008 - "[[A Critique of Modern Physics]]" ([http://www.naturalphilosophy.org/pdf/abstracts/abstracts_3061.pdf Read in full])
* 2008 - "[[A Neo-Phenomenalist Alternative to Special Relativity Theory]]"
* 2008 - "[[Orbital Time Dilation]]"
* 2008 - "[[The Pioneer Anomaly or a ?Dissident' Perspective on Modern Physics]]" ([http://www.physicsfoundations.org/PIRT_XI/papers/POPE%20ABSTRACT%202008.doc Read in full])
* 2006 - "[[Breaking the Light Barrier to Scientific Progress]]" ([http://www.physicsfoundations.org/PIRT_X/papers/POPE%20PAPER%202006.pdf Read in full])
* 2004 - "[[From Light in Space to Space in Light, the Complete Relativistic Revolution]]" ([http://www.naturalphilosophy.org/pdf/abstracts/abstracts_811.pdf Read in full])
* 2004 - "[[The Logical Redundancy of Einstein?s Second Postulate]]"
* 2003 - "[[An Angular Momentum Synthesis of ?Gravitational? and ?Electrostatic? Forces]]"
* 2000 - "[[The Angular Momentum Aether]]"
* 2000 - "[[An Angular Momentum Synthesis of Gravitational and Electrostatic Forces]]"
* 1999 - "[[The Complete Physics Heresy]]"
* 1999 - "[[Newton is Dead, Long Live Newton]]"
* 1997 - "[[A Quantum-Digital Theory of Light]]"
* 1986 - "[[Is Relativity Quantized?]]"

==Books==

* 2008 - "[[Light Speed, Gravitation and Quantum Instantaneity]]" ([http://www.amazon.co.uk/Light-Speed-Gravitation-Quantum-instantaneity/dp/0950379069 Read in full])
* 2005 - "[[Immediate Distant Action and Correlation in Modern Physics: The Balanced Universe]]" ([http://www.amazon.com/Immediate-Distant-Action-Correlation-Physics/dp/0773460640/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1215901100&sr=1-1 Read in full])
* 2004 - "[[The Eye of the Beholder: The Role of the Observer in Modern Physics]]" ([http://www.gwales.com/bibliographic/?isbn=0950379050 Read in full])
* 1999 - "[[Instantaneous Action at a Distance in Modern Physics: Pro and Contra]]" ([http://www.amazon.com/Instantaneous-Action-Distance-Modern-Physics/dp/1560726989/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1215902541&sr=1-1 Read in full])
* 1981 - "[[Relativising Relativity]]" ([http://www.amazon.com/Relativising-Relativity-N-Vivian-Pope/dp/0950379034/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1216315170&sr=8-1 Read in full])
* 1975 - "[[Philosophy: An Outline of the Discipline and its Sub-Disciplines]]" ([http://www.amazon.com/Philosophy-outline-discipline-its-sub-disciplines/dp/0950379018/ref=sr_11_1?ie=UTF8&qid=1218214506&sr=11-1 Read in full])

[[Category:Scientist|Pope Neville]]

Vivian Pope

2021-02-09T14:25:56Z

CriticalT: /* This was written later */

{{Infobox scientist
| name = Vivian Pope
| image = Vivian Pope 292.jpg
| alt = Vivian Pope
| birth_date = {{birth date|1931|01|22|mf=y}}
| death_date = {{birth date|2012|03|24|mf=y}}
| fields = [[Hon. Professor of Relativistic Quantum Physics]], [[. Member of the Scientific Advisory Board]], [[Internati]]
| residence = Swansea., South Wales, United Kingdom
| nationality = Welsh
| known_for = [[Relativity]], [[Space]], [[Time]], [[Motion]], [[IAAD]], [[Mach's Principle]]
}}

'''N. Vivian (Viv) Pope''' worked for almost twenty years in the telecommunications industry, leaving to become a mature-age student at the University of Wales, Bangor. Graduating in the Philosophy of Science, he then became a lecturer at the Burton-on-Trent Further Education College, Staffordshire where he taught Liberal Studies and Philosophy. He was also tutor/counselor for the Open University. He took early retirement from these posts in order to concentrate on his researches into the philosophical foundations of modern physics. He has published numerous papers and books on the subject, both on his own and in collaboration with his younger colleague, Dr. Anthony Osborne.

Here is his fascinating story in his own words:

I am now (in 2011) eighty years old, physically disabled, but not mentally, thank God! This disability follows from an all-too vigorous young life (weightlifting, motor-racing - plus crashing) wrestling and general lunacy), all this in an eminently individualistic (i.e., un-clubbable) capacity.

==Early education==

As you may gather, I was a rather unruly youth. Educationally speaking, I was a 'dropout' - a 'dissident', you might say, right from the very start. During the Second World War, at the age of ten I was evacuated with my younger sister away from our home town of Swansea which was being heavily bombed. Separated from my sister, I was sent to a small country school in mid-Wales where the teaching was in the Welsh language. I am very Welsh as my DNA attests, but my family (apart from my maternal grandparents) did not speak the language. In the industrial town of Swansea. the English language was predominant, and I was not encouraged to speak my mother tongue. Thus, in the entirely Welsh-Speaking community into which I had been precipitated, I became educationally disadvantaged. The school was in Gelli Aur *(Welsh for 'Golden Grove'), and that is where I first learned to become an expert in truancy. In short, while everyone else was at school I went 'walkabout' in what I later described in a recent book on that era, as 'God's country'.

This expertise in truancy continued when I returned to my hometown, so that I twice failed my entrance examination for Grammar School (High School). However, I passed an intelligence test which, luckily for me, had no academic content to it. Thus, in 1943, I became a student at the Junior Technical School (JTS), Swansea. The workshop practice with files,  lathes, shaping machines and so on was much to my liking; but when it came to academic, sit-down-and-learn subjects, Physics and Chemistry in particular, being desperately disappointed and bored with the way these subjects were taught, I found a way of escaping school altogether. In this way I gained my own brand of education in picking up interesting bits and pieces of junk in the local scrap-yards and testing my home-made radios with a fellow escapee in the same park (Cwmdonkin) that our famous countryman, the poet Dylan Thomas frequented and has written about. In general, then, from my earlier days, my days were occupied by inventing things and, on occasions, playing football with my friends, including my yet-to-become-famous, Cwmbwrla schoolmate, footballer John Charles. From then on, Most of my time was spent in physical and generally exploratory, sometimes dangerous, pursuits with a Forestfach gang of roustabouts of the same ilk. (The Welsh 'Cwmbwrla', by the way, means 'Valley of the Pure Voice'., and Fforestfach means 'Little Forest').

==Marriage and family==

At school, the sorts of pupils I most implacably detested were the scholars, the ones with the academic promise and aspirations. And then, in 1946, I met one of these detestable scholars, an Oxbridge hopeful named Mary Thomas, from the 'upper-crust' Girls' High School in Swansea. Through her, I obtained, by stealth and tender persuasion, the education in literacy and arts which I needed but could never have obtained through Educational coercion. We were married in 1953, she at twenty and I at twenty-two. We now have three daughters and eight grandchildren.

From the Tech, I was somehow transferred, at sixteen, to the Dynevor Grammar school from which, after half a term, I left to become a trainee draughtsman at the local steelworks (Cwmfelin, meaning Valley of the Mill ). After six months as an engineering draughtsman, I followed my father into the telecommunications industry, where I worked as a telephone engineer for eighteen years, interrupted by two years National Service in the Royal Air Force (1950-52) as a Radio Direction-finding and Air Traffic Control Operator, plus unofficial improver of the radio equipment. After the RAF I returned to my job, during which time my wife had begun her teaching career. After I left the RAF, through my father, Donald Edward Pope, who was an excellent male role-model and much respected amateur astronomer, as well as being a philosopher and far-sighted liberal thinker, I became interested in Astronomy and it was through membership of the Astronomical Society, at the Royal Institution, Swansea, that I was introduced to Relativity Theory.

This galvanized me. It seemed absurd to be told that time was not the same everywhere in the way I had somehow automatically assumed. Plaguing my father about it, in exasperation, no doubt, he told me to 'ask Einstein'. I left it to Mary to find Einstein's address. This she did and, naively, I wrote to Einstein asking him to explain something which, as I learned afterward, was known as the 'Clock Paradox'. To everyone's amazement; - not least my father's - Einstein sent me a very encouraging reply which is now kept as a treasured item in the Swansea County Archives: [http://www.swansea.gov.uk/westglamorganarchives http://www.swansea.gov.uk/westglamorganarchives]. to be read only under staff supervision. This has appeared several times in the media including, most recently, on television where it was valued as some thousands of pounds.

 

During these years, continuing my work as a telecoms engineer, I embarked on the course set for me by Einstein's reply to my question, which at the time, I had failed to understand. Eventually, I came to realize that if what one person could discover about nature was true, then that same truth should be discoverable by others in different ways, otherwise that discovery could not be an entirely objective one.

'''A seminal, life-changing discovery'''

And this, indeed, is what I did discover; another way of reaching the same conclusion as Einstein regarding the dilation of time with relative motion. This was not by the conventional and highly complex mathematical-physics means of 'electrodynamics' and 'light-velocity' but by the very much simpler, purely graphical means of the geometry which I had learned to use as an engineering draftsman. This confirmed, independently, what Einstein had said in his letter, and concurred in correspondence with Herman Bondi, the Mathematical Physicist and Astronomer, that there is no such thing as the 'clock paradox'. Most significant, however, was my discovery of the fact that the same conclusions that Einstein had come to, regarding space and time could be deduced without reference to his  mystifying concept of light having a 'velocity' which is constant, not only to space itself but also relative to all observers moving or stationary within that space. (This was also concurred by Bondi.) In other words, my lateral-thinking alternative showed that Einstein's Second Axiom of Special Relativity is redundant, hence so is all the conventional talk about 'electromagnetic propagation' in relation to relativity. It was this discovery which led, later, to my work on 'quantum instantaneity'. (lately, an article appeared in New Scientist reporting that more than just a few mainstream physicists have come to the same conclusion (See 'Shedding Light on Light', N.S., 1/11/08, pp. 28-31).

==University==

In my pursuit of this subject, in extramural contacts with various members of the Physics and Philosophy departments of Swansea University, I was invited to attend staff-student seminars. This was on an informal, day-release, basis in which I continued my job in telecommunications whilst getting involved in discussions about Wittgenstein and Linguistic Analysis. Then, in 1965, two of the Swansea University lecturers recommended me to the Principal of the Workers Education College in North Wales (Coleg Harlech) and, with my wife's encouragement, I became a student at that college. There, I set aside my technical training and studied Arts subjects, such as Philosophy, Psychology and Sociology, plus History of Ideas and Literature. Despite my earlier leanings towards scientific pursuits I took to all this like a duck to water and, in 1966 I was invited to study for a degree at the University College of North Wales, Bangor. Having moved my family to that region while I pursued my studies, in 1969 I graduated with [http://www.poams.org/10_seminal_publications.html Honours] in [http://www.poams.org/10_seminal_publications.html Philosophy of Science], with ancillary subjects Logic, Sociology and Psychology. For the following year I stayed on at University to gain a teaching certificate n Adult Education, during which time I also started on my Dissertation for the further degree

In 1970 I became a teacher of these subjects, in Adult Education, at Burton-on-Trent Technical College in the Midlands of England. This became a centre for the then nascent Open University for which I became a Tutor, Counselor and Study-Centre Coordinator. (as already explained on the NPA 'Pope' page).

A few years later I became involved with MENSA, who published an article of mine entitled 'The Overdue Revolution' (see [http://www.poams.org/ http://www.poams.org/] in the section: 'Seminal Publications'). This enjoyed a good reception among the membership of that organization, to the extent that I was invited to subscribe my ideas on a regular basis to the MENSA Science-Interest Group, SPACESIGNL, which I did for some time thereafter.

==CERN==

In 1975 I had the opportunity of visiting CERN the atomic research laboratory in Geneva. In the capacity of an editor/reporter for a philosophical 'Viewspaper', I interviewed, among others, the Director, V. F. Weisskopf, T. D. Lee (discoverer of the 'meson') and John Bell (of 'Bell's Inequalities' fame). I also observed some of the experiments. All of this I found profoundly enlightening. (My report on it was written up in phi the Philosophical Viewspaper: ISSN 0305-5833.)

==Natural Philosophy==

In 1990 I was invited to do a talk in Imperial College, London. This was for the PIRT (Physical Interpretations of Relativity Theory) association. My talk was entitled 'Instantaneous Relativistic Action-at-a-Distance'. An American professor who had attended the talk insisted on my publishing it, which I did, and persuaded me to attend the Cambridge based Alternative Natural Philosophy Association (ANPA). In this Association, I have presented many papers and became Secretary and Editor of the annual ANPA Newsletter (ISSN 1358-2240). I served in this capacity for about five years until I was forced to resign these posts due to ill health. Later, as a contributing 'back bencher', so to speak, a new President of the Association sought to ban me for being 'too Socratic'. (The 'Socratic Method' is to discover truth by the logical elimination of error. Pointing out errors in people's theories by logical reductio ad absurdum (reduction to absurdity) upsets people and is what led to Socrates, the Father of Natural Philosophy, being executed.)

==Westminster==

But now comes 'the crunch' which, as I'm sure you will see, speaks volumes for the need of innovative thinking in education. In our concern for this, as teachers, my wife and I were invited, under the auspices of a Liberal Member of Parliament, Clement Freud, to attend meetings in Westminster, London, where we presented our case for encouraging creative free-thinking in our high schools and universities (de-schooling, or anti-scholasticism as it was called). Against the conventional mainstream, with its emphasis on the testing and examining of students for proficiency in the attainment of Educationally preconceived 'mostly commercial ' ends, it was, as we eventually told ourselves, 'like trying to swim up a waterfall'.

'''Falling foul of the Educational Arts-Science apartheid'''

Nothing was more indicative of this mainstream pressure towards educational conformity than what happened when, in 1971, I presented my Masters Thesis for examination. In my run-up to this thesis I first had to present to my professor at Bangor, C. K. W Mundle, a dissertation for pre-evaluation and guidance. My thesis was entitled 'A Philosophical Re-Examination of Some Present Physical Concepts' (1972). This proposed a philosophical merger of relativistic and quantum physics; but far from encouraging me to present this truly innovative piece of work, I was warned that I 'should not presume to tell physicists what they should and shouldn't do. 'If I persisted on that course,' I was firmly told, 'I would inevitably fail.'

And, inevitably, I suppose, it did fail - twice (1972 and 1973). Referred to Professor Sir Karl Popper for a second opinion, he declared that 'it was not the thesis that had failed but its examiners'. In any event, it was the ideas developed in that thesis which have since been advanced in international conferences and in what some people have dubbed my 'heretical' books and papers. This was in my later connection, from 1982, with Keele University, UK as a Research Associate of the Mathematics Department. The ongoing Physics/Mathematics collaboration with Dr, Anthony Osborne, in that department has become known as POAMS, the Pope-Osborne Angular Momentum Synthesis (see [http://www.poams.org/ http://www.poams.org/]).

'''Doctor or Not? (Now Professor)'''

==This was written Earlier==

Although I am often referred to as 'Doctor', the Doctorate under which my researches with Osborne in the Mathematics Department at Keele University were at first conducted soon ran into deep trouble, This was because my thesis, by its very nature, fell between the two very same warring Educational factions of Arts and Science that it sought to unite. For instance, asked by the Maths Department to take oversight of the Philosophical content of my work with Osborne, the Philosophy Department declined. This was on the basis that as an Arts department they felt 'not competent' to judge my peculiar admixture of Mathematical Physics and Philosophy. So although I am assured that my work is well over the standard required for a Doctorate, as an attempt to merge two conventionally separate disciplines it falls into an academic limbo where it is conventionally unclassifiable, hence un-examinable, So my academic advisers tell me that I should just 'forget it'. 'Doctor', 'Mister' or whatever, they advise, is quite okay, although in the end I personally prefer just plain 'Viv Pope'. But that, too, has been frowned upon by some of my colleagues as being 'too informal' for publications purposes. So I've given up on it and let it come as it may. The moral seems to be that there are no doctorates awarded for heresy, which means that my status in the Educational establishment, even as a bona fide lecturer, administrator and researcher, has always been equivocal, hence a 'running sore' of embarrassment to The System.

==This was written later==

Since the above was written I have been made an Honourary Professor of Relativistic Quiantum Physics and Member of the Scientific Advisory Board, International Institute of Theoretical Physics and Mathematics,Einstein-Galilei, Prato, Italy.

In sum, then, I am honoured to be referred to in academic circles as one of the 'top heretics on this planet' or, in some sectors, as 'The Sh**-Stirring Welshman'. I am honoured because it is a truism that all the significant advances in science have been 'heresies' in their day. My heresy is that I have sought to break the Arts-Science deadlock in contemporary Education by re-connecting Physics with Philosophy in what was originally known as Natural Philosophy. This is by earthing the conceptually airborne Relativity of Einstein in the quantised relativism of Einstein's philosophical mentor Mach. The result is a form of neo-Machian physics-philosophy known as Normal Realism, which, as compared to the theoretical extravagances of Modern Physics and Cosmology, has been called 'a triumph of commonsense'.

'''Recent:'''

In 2010 I was contacted by Masood Sanati, a physicist at Tehran University requesting my views on the mysteries of Charge Distribution. After much discussion on the subject he invited me to Iran to give some talks on the subject and to tutor his students. This was out of the question, not least duev tom my and Mary's health problems, but Sanati was very persistent in trying to get me an award for my work from the Khwarizmi Foundation. He then recommended me to Dr. Christian Corda who was setting up the International Institute for Theoretical Physics and Mathematics Einstein-Galilei at Prato in Italy. As a result, I am now a member of the Scientific Advisory Board with the title of Honorary Professor of Relativistic Quantum Physics.

More recently, in my new official status of Professor of Relativistic Quantum Physics in Prato Italy (see above) I am engaged in a an experimental project entitled, '''An experimental proof of predicted Changes in Newton's ?Gravitational Constant' G for Spinning Bodies'.'''

Posthumous Note: Although Prof. Pope passed away in 2012, experimental analysis of predicted changes in Newton’s ‘Gravitational Constant’ G for spinning bodies is continuing and with positive results.

'''Articles:'''

# 1986 'Abstract: Is Relativity Quantized?' Speculations in Science and Technology, Vol. 9, No. 4, p. 242.
# 1987 'A New Approach to Special Relativity' (with A.D. Osborne). International Journal of Mathematical Education in Science and Technology, Vol. 18, No. 2, pp. 191-198.
# 1987 (April) 'The Overdue Revolution'. MENSA, pp. 28-29.
# 1988 'Arts View of Science'. Times Higher Educational Supplement (Letter, November 11th.)
# 1988 'Floating Free'. Times Higher Ed. Suppl. (Ltr. Dec. 23rd.)
# 1989 'Experiments in God's Eye'. Times Higher Ed. Suppl. (Article, Feb. 2nd.)
# 1989 'The New World Synthesis'. Philosophia Mathematica (II) No. 1, Vol. 4, pp. 23-28.
# 1989 'Relativity is Kids' Stuff'. School Science Review, Vol. 70 (253) pp. 86-87.
# 1990 'Changing Philosophy'. Times Higher Ed. Suppl. (Ltr. May 4th.)
# 1990 'The Quantum is Kids' Stuff'. School Sci. Rev. Vol. 71, pp. 105-107.
# 1990 School Sci. Rev. (Forum) Vol.72, No. 258, p. 161.
# 1990 'Instantaneous Relativistic Action-at-a-Distance' (with A.D. Osborne). Proceedings of the 2nd BSPS conference: Physical Interpretations of Relativity (PIRT) pp. 460-488.
# 1992 'Relativity and Realism' (with A.D. Osborne). Proceedings of the 3rd BSPS conference: PIRT, pp. 281-287.
# 1992 'The Action-at-a-Distance Spectrum' (with A.D. Osborne). Proceedings of the 3rd BSPS conference: PIRT pp. 253-280.
# 1992 'Instantaneous Relativistic Action-at-a-Distance' (with A. D Osborne). Physics Essays, Vol. 5, No. 3, pp. 409-421.
# 1992 'The Sequential Paradigm', Proc. of the 13th Annual International Meeting of the Alternative Natural Philosophy Association (ANPA), Sept. 1991, pp. 55-65.
# 1993 'An Alternative Natural Philosophy', Proc of the 14th Annual International Meeting of ANPA, Sept 1992, pp. 113-130.
# 1994 'Normal Realism: A Challenge to Physicists'. Proc. of the 15th Annual International Meeting of ANPA, Sept. 1993, pp. 111-115.
# Also 'A Rustic Rediscovery of Relativity', pp. 116-130.
# 1994 'A Critical Review of the PIRT Conferences to Date'. Proc. of the 4th BSPS Conference: PIRT, pp 257-272.
# 1995 'In Search of the ANPA Philosophy'. ANPA Newsletter No. 15, ISSN 1358-2240, pp. 6-10.
# 1995 'Instantaneous Gravitational and Inertial Action-at-a-Distance' (with A.D. Osborne). Physics Essays, Vol. 8, No. 3, pp. 384-397.
# 1995 'The Lingering Death of Western Dualism', Proc. of the 16th Annual International Meeting of ANPA, ISBN 0952621509, pp. 117-121. Also 'The Language of Light Velocity', pp. 122-134.
# 1996 'The Two Aspects of Special Relativity', ANPA Newsletter, No. 16, p. 10. Also 'Empiricism and the Quantum', pp. 8-16.
# 1996 'Copenhagen, Yes or No?' Apeiron, Vol. 3, No.1, pp. 20-21.
# 1996 'A Philosophical Analysis of the Concept of Motion in Relation to Action-at-a-Distance', Apeiron, Special Issue, ed. M. W. Evans. (accepted but did not appear, due to a difference of opinion with editor).
# 1996 'A Response' (to M. W. Evans), Apeiron, '@ Issue' section, Vol. 3, No 3-4, pp. 124-125.
# 1996 'The Dogma of the Photon', in 'Philosophies', the Proceedings of the 17th Annual International Meeting of the Alternative Natural Philosophy Association, pp. 175-188.
# 1997, 'A Quantum-Digital Theory of Light', in The Present Status of the Quantum Theory of Light, Eds. Jeffers, Roy, Vigier and Hunter, (Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht, Netherlands.)
# 1997 'Is ANPA an Altogether Non-Philosophical Association?' Newsletter 17 of the Alternative Natural Philosophy Association (ed. N.V. Pope) 12-14.
# 1997 'The Gateway to Paradox' and 'The Cinematic Model of Quantum Touching' in Mereologies, the Proceedings of the 18th International Meeting of the Alternative Natural Philosophy Association., 62-66, 134-135.
# 1998 'Shedding Light on Light' in Causality and Locality in Modern Physics, Eds. G. Hunter, et al,, Kluwer, Academic Publishers, Dordrecht NL, pp 187-194.
# 1998 'A Relativistic Quantum Phenomenology', Proceedings of the 5th International Conference; Problems of Space, Time and Motion, St. Petersburg, Russia. June, 1998.
# 1998 'Solving the "c" Conundrum of the Velocity of Light Relative to the Vacuum', Proceedings of the Physical Interpretations of Relativity Theory, London, September 1998.
# 1999 'Newton is Dead, Long Live Newton', in Instantaneous Action-at-a-Distance in Modern Physics: Pro and Contra, Editors: A. E. Chubykalo, Viv Pope and R. Smirnov-Rueda, published by Nova Science. NY.
# 1999. 'The Complete Physics Heresy', Galilean Electrodynamics, ed. C. Kolb-Whitney, Mass. USA.
# 2000. 'Too Many Theories, Too Few Syntheses', Physical Interpretations of Relativity Theory VII Proceedings, ed. M. C. Duffy.
# 2000. 'A Logical Reconciliation of Einstein and Newton or a Synthesis Relativity and Quantum Theory', Journal of New Energy, Ed. Hal Fox, Vol. 5, No. 1.
# 2001. 'An Angular Momentum Synthesis of Gravitational and Electrostatic Forces' in Physics as a Science Symposium Proceedings, publ. in Journal of New Energy, Vol. 5, No. 3.
# 2001. 'The Tantalising Two-Slit Experiment' in Recent Advances in Relativity Theory, Vol. 2.: Material Interpretations, Es. M. C. Duffy and M. Wegener, Hadronic Press, Florida, USA.
# 2001. 'Umbala: a Polemic Against Jargon Addiction in Modern Science', Proceedings of the 22nd annual International Meeting of the Alternative Natural Philosophy Association Ed. Arleta Griffor, publ by ANPA.
# Osborne , A. D. and Pope, N. V., 'An Angular Momentum Synthesis of "Gravitational" and "Electrostatic" Forces', Galilean Electrodynamics, Vol. 14, Special Issue 1, Spring 2003, pp. 9-19.
# 2008, A Critical Perspective on Modern Physics: a talk delivered at the PIRT Conference, Imperial College, London, UK Sept. 2008. 'NASA's Need of New Physics'.

==Books==

* 1999 Instantaneous Action At A Distance in Modern Physics, Pro and Contra, Eds.: Andrew E Chubykalo, Viv Pope and Roman Smirnov-Rueda, Nova Science NY, USA.
* 2005, Immediate Distant Action and Correlation in Modern Physics: Eds. N. Vivian Pope, Andrew E. Chubykalo and Alan F. T. Winfield, Edwin Mellen Press, Lewiston, NY, USA.
* 2007, Light-Speed, Gravitation and Quantum Instantaneity, Anthony D. Osborne and N. Vivian Pope, phi Philosophical Enterprises, Swansea, UK. ISBN 0-9503790-6-9.
* 2010 Wondering in the Wilderness, A. M. and N. V. Pope, phi, Swansea, ISBN 978-0-9505790-7-4.
* 2010 God's Country, N. Vivian Pope, phi, Swansea, ISBN 978-0-9503790-8-5
* 2011 A Critical Review of Contemporary Physics and Cosmology, Pope and Osborne, (to appear).
* 2016 Einstein's Lost Legacy: A Critical Review of Contemporary Physics and Cosmology, N. V. Pope and A D Osborne

==Abstracts==

* 2011 - "[[Extraordinary Physics, or Is Modern Theoretical Physics Just a Teetering 'House of Cards'?
]]" ([http://www.naturalphilosophy.org/pdf/abstracts/abstracts_6180.pdf Read in full])
* 2009 - "[[Extraordinary Physics, or Is Modern Theoretical Physics Just a Teetering 'House of Cards'?]]" ([http://www.naturalphilosophy.org/pdf/abstracts/abstracts_2785.pdf Read in full])
* 2009 - "[[NASA's Missing Spin: The Pioneer and Missing Mass Anomalies]]" ([http://www.naturalphilosophy.org/pdf/abstracts/abstracts_1852.pdf Read in full])
* 2008 - "[[A Critique of Modern Physics]]" ([http://www.naturalphilosophy.org/pdf/abstracts/abstracts_3061.pdf Read in full])
* 2008 - "[[A Neo-Phenomenalist Alternative to Special Relativity Theory]]"
* 2008 - "[[Orbital Time Dilation]]"
* 2008 - "[[The Pioneer Anomaly or a ?Dissident' Perspective on Modern Physics]]" ([http://www.physicsfoundations.org/PIRT_XI/papers/POPE%20ABSTRACT%202008.doc Read in full])
* 2006 - "[[Breaking the Light Barrier to Scientific Progress]]" ([http://www.physicsfoundations.org/PIRT_X/papers/POPE%20PAPER%202006.pdf Read in full])
* 2004 - "[[From Light in Space to Space in Light, the Complete Relativistic Revolution]]" ([http://www.naturalphilosophy.org/pdf/abstracts/abstracts_811.pdf Read in full])
* 2004 - "[[The Logical Redundancy of Einstein?s Second Postulate]]"
* 2003 - "[[An Angular Momentum Synthesis of ?Gravitational? and ?Electrostatic? Forces]]"
* 2000 - "[[The Angular Momentum Aether]]"
* 2000 - "[[An Angular Momentum Synthesis of Gravitational and Electrostatic Forces]]"
* 1999 - "[[The Complete Physics Heresy]]"
* 1999 - "[[Newton is Dead, Long Live Newton]]"
* 1997 - "[[A Quantum-Digital Theory of Light]]"
* 1986 - "[[Is Relativity Quantized?]]"

==Books==

* 2008 - "[[Light Speed, Gravitation and Quantum Instantaneity]]" ([http://www.amazon.co.uk/Light-Speed-Gravitation-Quantum-instantaneity/dp/0950379069 Read in full])
* 2005 - "[[Immediate Distant Action and Correlation in Modern Physics: The Balanced Universe]]" ([http://www.amazon.com/Immediate-Distant-Action-Correlation-Physics/dp/0773460640/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1215901100&sr=1-1 Read in full])
* 2004 - "[[The Eye of the Beholder: The Role of the Observer in Modern Physics]]" ([http://www.gwales.com/bibliographic/?isbn=0950379050 Read in full])
* 1999 - "[[Instantaneous Action at a Distance in Modern Physics: Pro and Contra]]" ([http://www.amazon.com/Instantaneous-Action-Distance-Modern-Physics/dp/1560726989/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1215902541&sr=1-1 Read in full])
* 1981 - "[[Relativising Relativity]]" ([http://www.amazon.com/Relativising-Relativity-N-Vivian-Pope/dp/0950379034/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1216315170&sr=8-1 Read in full])
* 1975 - "[[Philosophy: An Outline of the Discipline and its Sub-Disciplines]]" ([http://www.amazon.com/Philosophy-outline-discipline-its-sub-disciplines/dp/0950379018/ref=sr_11_1?ie=UTF8&qid=1218214506&sr=11-1 Read in full])

[[Category:Scientist|Pope Neville]]

Vivian Pope

2021-02-09T14:21:24Z

CriticalT: /* This was written later */

{{Infobox scientist
| name = Vivian Pope
| image = Vivian Pope 292.jpg
| alt = Vivian Pope
| birth_date = {{birth date|1931|01|22|mf=y}}
| death_date = {{birth date|2012|03|24|mf=y}}
| fields = [[Hon. Professor of Relativistic Quantum Physics]], [[. Member of the Scientific Advisory Board]], [[Internati]]
| residence = Swansea., South Wales, United Kingdom
| nationality = Welsh
| known_for = [[Relativity]], [[Space]], [[Time]], [[Motion]], [[IAAD]], [[Mach's Principle]]
}}

'''N. Vivian (Viv) Pope''' worked for almost twenty years in the telecommunications industry, leaving to become a mature-age student at the University of Wales, Bangor. Graduating in the Philosophy of Science, he then became a lecturer at the Burton-on-Trent Further Education College, Staffordshire where he taught Liberal Studies and Philosophy. He was also tutor/counselor for the Open University. He took early retirement from these posts in order to concentrate on his researches into the philosophical foundations of modern physics. He has published numerous papers and books on the subject, both on his own and in collaboration with his younger colleague, Dr. Anthony Osborne.

Here is his fascinating story in his own words:

I am now (in 2011) eighty years old, physically disabled, but not mentally, thank God! This disability follows from an all-too vigorous young life (weightlifting, motor-racing - plus crashing) wrestling and general lunacy), all this in an eminently individualistic (i.e., un-clubbable) capacity.

==Early education==

As you may gather, I was a rather unruly youth. Educationally speaking, I was a 'dropout' - a 'dissident', you might say, right from the very start. During the Second World War, at the age of ten I was evacuated with my younger sister away from our home town of Swansea which was being heavily bombed. Separated from my sister, I was sent to a small country school in mid-Wales where the teaching was in the Welsh language. I am very Welsh as my DNA attests, but my family (apart from my maternal grandparents) did not speak the language. In the industrial town of Swansea. the English language was predominant, and I was not encouraged to speak my mother tongue. Thus, in the entirely Welsh-Speaking community into which I had been precipitated, I became educationally disadvantaged. The school was in Gelli Aur *(Welsh for 'Golden Grove'), and that is where I first learned to become an expert in truancy. In short, while everyone else was at school I went 'walkabout' in what I later described in a recent book on that era, as 'God's country'.

This expertise in truancy continued when I returned to my hometown, so that I twice failed my entrance examination for Grammar School (High School). However, I passed an intelligence test which, luckily for me, had no academic content to it. Thus, in 1943, I became a student at the Junior Technical School (JTS), Swansea. The workshop practice with files,  lathes, shaping machines and so on was much to my liking; but when it came to academic, sit-down-and-learn subjects, Physics and Chemistry in particular, being desperately disappointed and bored with the way these subjects were taught, I found a way of escaping school altogether. In this way I gained my own brand of education in picking up interesting bits and pieces of junk in the local scrap-yards and testing my home-made radios with a fellow escapee in the same park (Cwmdonkin) that our famous countryman, the poet Dylan Thomas frequented and has written about. In general, then, from my earlier days, my days were occupied by inventing things and, on occasions, playing football with my friends, including my yet-to-become-famous, Cwmbwrla schoolmate, footballer John Charles. From then on, Most of my time was spent in physical and generally exploratory, sometimes dangerous, pursuits with a Forestfach gang of roustabouts of the same ilk. (The Welsh 'Cwmbwrla', by the way, means 'Valley of the Pure Voice'., and Fforestfach means 'Little Forest').

==Marriage and family==

At school, the sorts of pupils I most implacably detested were the scholars, the ones with the academic promise and aspirations. And then, in 1946, I met one of these detestable scholars, an Oxbridge hopeful named Mary Thomas, from the 'upper-crust' Girls' High School in Swansea. Through her, I obtained, by stealth and tender persuasion, the education in literacy and arts which I needed but could never have obtained through Educational coercion. We were married in 1953, she at twenty and I at twenty-two. We now have three daughters and eight grandchildren.

From the Tech, I was somehow transferred, at sixteen, to the Dynevor Grammar school from which, after half a term, I left to become a trainee draughtsman at the local steelworks (Cwmfelin, meaning Valley of the Mill ). After six months as an engineering draughtsman, I followed my father into the telecommunications industry, where I worked as a telephone engineer for eighteen years, interrupted by two years National Service in the Royal Air Force (1950-52) as a Radio Direction-finding and Air Traffic Control Operator, plus unofficial improver of the radio equipment. After the RAF I returned to my job, during which time my wife had begun her teaching career. After I left the RAF, through my father, Donald Edward Pope, who was an excellent male role-model and much respected amateur astronomer, as well as being a philosopher and far-sighted liberal thinker, I became interested in Astronomy and it was through membership of the Astronomical Society, at the Royal Institution, Swansea, that I was introduced to Relativity Theory.

This galvanized me. It seemed absurd to be told that time was not the same everywhere in the way I had somehow automatically assumed. Plaguing my father about it, in exasperation, no doubt, he told me to 'ask Einstein'. I left it to Mary to find Einstein's address. This she did and, naively, I wrote to Einstein asking him to explain something which, as I learned afterward, was known as the 'Clock Paradox'. To everyone's amazement; - not least my father's - Einstein sent me a very encouraging reply which is now kept as a treasured item in the Swansea County Archives: [http://www.swansea.gov.uk/westglamorganarchives http://www.swansea.gov.uk/westglamorganarchives]. to be read only under staff supervision. This has appeared several times in the media including, most recently, on television where it was valued as some thousands of pounds.

 

During these years, continuing my work as a telecoms engineer, I embarked on the course set for me by Einstein's reply to my question, which at the time, I had failed to understand. Eventually, I came to realize that if what one person could discover about nature was true, then that same truth should be discoverable by others in different ways, otherwise that discovery could not be an entirely objective one.

'''A seminal, life-changing discovery'''

And this, indeed, is what I did discover; another way of reaching the same conclusion as Einstein regarding the dilation of time with relative motion. This was not by the conventional and highly complex mathematical-physics means of 'electrodynamics' and 'light-velocity' but by the very much simpler, purely graphical means of the geometry which I had learned to use as an engineering draftsman. This confirmed, independently, what Einstein had said in his letter, and concurred in correspondence with Herman Bondi, the Mathematical Physicist and Astronomer, that there is no such thing as the 'clock paradox'. Most significant, however, was my discovery of the fact that the same conclusions that Einstein had come to, regarding space and time could be deduced without reference to his  mystifying concept of light having a 'velocity' which is constant, not only to space itself but also relative to all observers moving or stationary within that space. (This was also concurred by Bondi.) In other words, my lateral-thinking alternative showed that Einstein's Second Axiom of Special Relativity is redundant, hence so is all the conventional talk about 'electromagnetic propagation' in relation to relativity. It was this discovery which led, later, to my work on 'quantum instantaneity'. (lately, an article appeared in New Scientist reporting that more than just a few mainstream physicists have come to the same conclusion (See 'Shedding Light on Light', N.S., 1/11/08, pp. 28-31).

==University==

In my pursuit of this subject, in extramural contacts with various members of the Physics and Philosophy departments of Swansea University, I was invited to attend staff-student seminars. This was on an informal, day-release, basis in which I continued my job in telecommunications whilst getting involved in discussions about Wittgenstein and Linguistic Analysis. Then, in 1965, two of the Swansea University lecturers recommended me to the Principal of the Workers Education College in North Wales (Coleg Harlech) and, with my wife's encouragement, I became a student at that college. There, I set aside my technical training and studied Arts subjects, such as Philosophy, Psychology and Sociology, plus History of Ideas and Literature. Despite my earlier leanings towards scientific pursuits I took to all this like a duck to water and, in 1966 I was invited to study for a degree at the University College of North Wales, Bangor. Having moved my family to that region while I pursued my studies, in 1969 I graduated with [http://www.poams.org/10_seminal_publications.html Honours] in [http://www.poams.org/10_seminal_publications.html Philosophy of Science], with ancillary subjects Logic, Sociology and Psychology. For the following year I stayed on at University to gain a teaching certificate n Adult Education, during which time I also started on my Dissertation for the further degree

In 1970 I became a teacher of these subjects, in Adult Education, at Burton-on-Trent Technical College in the Midlands of England. This became a centre for the then nascent Open University for which I became a Tutor, Counselor and Study-Centre Coordinator. (as already explained on the NPA 'Pope' page).

A few years later I became involved with MENSA, who published an article of mine entitled 'The Overdue Revolution' (see [http://www.poams.org/ http://www.poams.org/] in the section: 'Seminal Publications'). This enjoyed a good reception among the membership of that organization, to the extent that I was invited to subscribe my ideas on a regular basis to the MENSA Science-Interest Group, SPACESIGNL, which I did for some time thereafter.

==CERN==

In 1975 I had the opportunity of visiting CERN the atomic research laboratory in Geneva. In the capacity of an editor/reporter for a philosophical 'Viewspaper', I interviewed, among others, the Director, V. F. Weisskopf, T. D. Lee (discoverer of the 'meson') and John Bell (of 'Bell's Inequalities' fame). I also observed some of the experiments. All of this I found profoundly enlightening. (My report on it was written up in phi the Philosophical Viewspaper: ISSN 0305-5833.)

==Natural Philosophy==

In 1990 I was invited to do a talk in Imperial College, London. This was for the PIRT (Physical Interpretations of Relativity Theory) association. My talk was entitled 'Instantaneous Relativistic Action-at-a-Distance'. An American professor who had attended the talk insisted on my publishing it, which I did, and persuaded me to attend the Cambridge based Alternative Natural Philosophy Association (ANPA). In this Association, I have presented many papers and became Secretary and Editor of the annual ANPA Newsletter (ISSN 1358-2240). I served in this capacity for about five years until I was forced to resign these posts due to ill health. Later, as a contributing 'back bencher', so to speak, a new President of the Association sought to ban me for being 'too Socratic'. (The 'Socratic Method' is to discover truth by the logical elimination of error. Pointing out errors in people's theories by logical reductio ad absurdum (reduction to absurdity) upsets people and is what led to Socrates, the Father of Natural Philosophy, being executed.)

==Westminster==

But now comes 'the crunch' which, as I'm sure you will see, speaks volumes for the need of innovative thinking in education. In our concern for this, as teachers, my wife and I were invited, under the auspices of a Liberal Member of Parliament, Clement Freud, to attend meetings in Westminster, London, where we presented our case for encouraging creative free-thinking in our high schools and universities (de-schooling, or anti-scholasticism as it was called). Against the conventional mainstream, with its emphasis on the testing and examining of students for proficiency in the attainment of Educationally preconceived 'mostly commercial ' ends, it was, as we eventually told ourselves, 'like trying to swim up a waterfall'.

'''Falling foul of the Educational Arts-Science apartheid'''

Nothing was more indicative of this mainstream pressure towards educational conformity than what happened when, in 1971, I presented my Masters Thesis for examination. In my run-up to this thesis I first had to present to my professor at Bangor, C. K. W Mundle, a dissertation for pre-evaluation and guidance. My thesis was entitled 'A Philosophical Re-Examination of Some Present Physical Concepts' (1972). This proposed a philosophical merger of relativistic and quantum physics; but far from encouraging me to present this truly innovative piece of work, I was warned that I 'should not presume to tell physicists what they should and shouldn't do. 'If I persisted on that course,' I was firmly told, 'I would inevitably fail.'

And, inevitably, I suppose, it did fail - twice (1972 and 1973). Referred to Professor Sir Karl Popper for a second opinion, he declared that 'it was not the thesis that had failed but its examiners'. In any event, it was the ideas developed in that thesis which have since been advanced in international conferences and in what some people have dubbed my 'heretical' books and papers. This was in my later connection, from 1982, with Keele University, UK as a Research Associate of the Mathematics Department. The ongoing Physics/Mathematics collaboration with Dr, Anthony Osborne, in that department has become known as POAMS, the Pope-Osborne Angular Momentum Synthesis (see [http://www.poams.org/ http://www.poams.org/]).

'''Doctor or Not? (Now Professor)'''

==This was written Earlier==

Although I am often referred to as 'Doctor', the Doctorate under which my researches with Osborne in the Mathematics Department at Keele University were at first conducted soon ran into deep trouble, This was because my thesis, by its very nature, fell between the two very same warring Educational factions of Arts and Science that it sought to unite. For instance, asked by the Maths Department to take oversight of the Philosophical content of my work with Osborne, the Philosophy Department declined. This was on the basis that as an Arts department they felt 'not competent' to judge my peculiar admixture of Mathematical Physics and Philosophy. So although I am assured that my work is well over the standard required for a Doctorate, as an attempt to merge two conventionally separate disciplines it falls into an academic limbo where it is conventionally unclassifiable, hence un-examinable, So my academic advisers tell me that I should just 'forget it'. 'Doctor', 'Mister' or whatever, they advise, is quite okay, although in the end I personally prefer just plain 'Viv Pope'. But that, too, has been frowned upon by some of my colleagues as being 'too informal' for publications purposes. So I've given up on it and let it come as it may. The moral seems to be that there are no doctorates awarded for heresy, which means that my status in the Educational establishment, even as a bona fide lecturer, administrator and researcher, has always been equivocal, hence a 'running sore' of embarrassment to The System.

==This was written later==

Since the above was written I have been made an Honourary Professor of Relativistic Quiantum Physics and Member of the Scientific Advisory Board, International Institute of Theoretical Physics and Mathematics,Einstein-Galilei, Prato, Italy.

In sum, then, I am honoured to be referred to in academic circles as one of the 'top heretics on this planet' or, in some sectors, as 'The Sh**-Stirring Welshman'. I am honoured because it is a truism that all the significant advances in science have been 'heresies' in their day. My heresy is that I have sought to break the Arts-Science deadlock in contemporary Education by re-connecting Physics with Philosophy in what was originally known as Natural Philosophy. This is by earthing the conceptually airborne Relativity of Einstein in the quantised relativism of Einstein's philosophical mentor Mach. The result is a form of neo-Machian physics-philosophy known as Normal Realism, which, as compared to the theoretical extravagances of Modern Physics and Cosmology, has been called 'a triumph of commonsense'.

'''Recent:'''

In 2010 I was contacted by Masood Sanati, a physicist at Tehran University requesting my views on the mysteries of Charge Distribution. After much discussion on the subject he invited me to Iran to give some talks on the subject and to tutor his students. This was out of the question, not least duev tom my and Mary's health problems, but Sanati was very persistent in trying to get me an award for my work from the Khwarizmi Foundation. He then recommended me to Dr. Christian Corda who was setting up the International Institute for Theoretical Physics and Mathematics Einstein-Galilei at Prato in Italy. As a result, I am now a member of the Scientific Advisory Board with the title of Honorary Professor of Relativistic Quantum Physics.

More recently, in my new official status of Professor of Relativistic Quantum Physics in Prato Italy (see above) I am engaged in a an experimental project entitled, '''An experimental proof of predicted Changes in Newton's ?Gravitational Constant' G for Spinning Bodies'.'''

Posthumous Note: Although Prof. Pope passed away in 2012, experimental analysis of predicted changes in Newton’s ‘Gravitational Constant’ G for spinning bodies is continuing and with positive results.

'''Articles:'''

# 1986 'Abstract: Is Relativity Quantized?' Speculations in Science and Technology, Vol. 9, No. 4, p. 242.
# 1987 'A New Approach to Special Relativity' (with A.D. Osborne). International Journal of Mathematical Education in Science and Technology, Vol. 18, No. 2, pp. 191-198.
# 1987 (April) 'The Overdue Revolution'. MENSA, pp. 28-29.
# 1988 'Arts View of Science'. Times Higher Educational Supplement (Letter, November 11th.)
# 1988 'Floating Free'. Times Higher Ed. Suppl. (Ltr. Dec. 23rd.)
# 1989 'Experiments in God's Eye'. Times Higher Ed. Suppl. (Article, Feb. 2nd.)
# 1989 'The New World Synthesis'. Philosophia Mathematica (II) No. 1, Vol. 4, pp. 23-28.
# 1989 'Relativity is Kids' Stuff'. School Science Review, Vol. 70 (253) pp. 86-87.
# 1990 'Changing Philosophy'. Times Higher Ed. Suppl. (Ltr. May 4th.)
# 1990 'The Quantum is Kids' Stuff'. School Sci. Rev. Vol. 71, pp. 105-107.
# 1990 School Sci. Rev. (Forum) Vol.72, No. 258, p. 161.
# 1990 'Instantaneous Relativistic Action-at-a-Distance' (with A.D. Osborne). Proceedings of the 2nd BSPS conference: Physical Interpretations of Relativity (PIRT) pp. 460-488.
# 1992 'Relativity and Realism' (with A.D. Osborne). Proceedings of the 3rd BSPS conference: PIRT, pp. 281-287.
# 1992 'The Action-at-a-Distance Spectrum' (with A.D. Osborne). Proceedings of the 3rd BSPS conference: PIRT pp. 253-280.
# 1992 'Instantaneous Relativistic Action-at-a-Distance' (with A. D Osborne). Physics Essays, Vol. 5, No. 3, pp. 409-421.
# 1992 'The Sequential Paradigm', Proc. of the 13th Annual International Meeting of the Alternative Natural Philosophy Association (ANPA), Sept. 1991, pp. 55-65.
# 1993 'An Alternative Natural Philosophy', Proc of the 14th Annual International Meeting of ANPA, Sept 1992, pp. 113-130.
# 1994 'Normal Realism: A Challenge to Physicists'. Proc. of the 15th Annual International Meeting of ANPA, Sept. 1993, pp. 111-115.
# Also 'A Rustic Rediscovery of Relativity', pp. 116-130.
# 1994 'A Critical Review of the PIRT Conferences to Date'. Proc. of the 4th BSPS Conference: PIRT, pp 257-272.
# 1995 'In Search of the ANPA Philosophy'. ANPA Newsletter No. 15, ISSN 1358-2240, pp. 6-10.
# 1995 'Instantaneous Gravitational and Inertial Action-at-a-Distance' (with A.D. Osborne). Physics Essays, Vol. 8, No. 3, pp. 384-397.
# 1995 'The Lingering Death of Western Dualism', Proc. of the 16th Annual International Meeting of ANPA, ISBN 0952621509, pp. 117-121. Also 'The Language of Light Velocity', pp. 122-134.
# 1996 'The Two Aspects of Special Relativity', ANPA Newsletter, No. 16, p. 10. Also 'Empiricism and the Quantum', pp. 8-16.
# 1996 'Copenhagen, Yes or No?' Apeiron, Vol. 3, No.1, pp. 20-21.
# 1996 'A Philosophical Analysis of the Concept of Motion in Relation to Action-at-a-Distance', Apeiron, Special Issue, ed. M. W. Evans. (accepted but did not appear, due to a difference of opinion with editor).
# 1996 'A Response' (to M. W. Evans), Apeiron, '@ Issue' section, Vol. 3, No 3-4, pp. 124-125.
# 1996 'The Dogma of the Photon', in 'Philosophies', the Proceedings of the 17th Annual International Meeting of the Alternative Natural Philosophy Association, pp. 175-188.
# 1997, 'A Quantum-Digital Theory of Light', in The Present Status of the Quantum Theory of Light, Eds. Jeffers, Roy, Vigier and Hunter, (Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht, Netherlands.)
# 1997 'Is ANPA an Altogether Non-Philosophical Association?' Newsletter 17 of the Alternative Natural Philosophy Association (ed. N.V. Pope) 12-14.
# 1997 'The Gateway to Paradox' and 'The Cinematic Model of Quantum Touching' in Mereologies, the Proceedings of the 18th International Meeting of the Alternative Natural Philosophy Association., 62-66, 134-135.
# 1998 'Shedding Light on Light' in Causality and Locality in Modern Physics, Eds. G. Hunter, et al,, Kluwer, Academic Publishers, Dordrecht NL, pp 187-194.
# 1998 'A Relativistic Quantum Phenomenology', Proceedings of the 5th International Conference; Problems of Space, Time and Motion, St. Petersburg, Russia. June, 1998.
# 1998 'Solving the "c" Conundrum of the Velocity of Light Relative to the Vacuum', Proceedings of the Physical Interpretations of Relativity Theory, London, September 1998.
# 1999 'Newton is Dead, Long Live Newton', in Instantaneous Action-at-a-Distance in Modern Physics: Pro and Contra, Editors: A. E. Chubykalo, Viv Pope and R. Smirnov-Rueda, published by Nova Science. NY.
# 1999. 'The Complete Physics Heresy', Galilean Electrodynamics, ed. C. Kolb-Whitney, Mass. USA.
# 2000. 'Too Many Theories, Too Few Syntheses', Physical Interpretations of Relativity Theory VII Proceedings, ed. M. C. Duffy.
# 2000. 'A Logical Reconciliation of Einstein and Newton or a Synthesis Relativity and Quantum Theory', Journal of New Energy, Ed. Hal Fox, Vol. 5, No. 1.
# 2001. 'An Angular Momentum Synthesis of Gravitational and Electrostatic Forces' in Physics as a Science Symposium Proceedings, publ. in Journal of New Energy, Vol. 5, No. 3.
# 2001. 'The Tantalising Two-Slit Experiment' in Recent Advances in Relativity Theory, Vol. 2.: Material Interpretations, Es. M. C. Duffy and M. Wegener, Hadronic Press, Florida, USA.
# 2001. 'Umbala: a Polemic Against Jargon Addiction in Modern Science', Proceedings of the 22nd annual International Meeting of the Alternative Natural Philosophy Association Ed. Arleta Griffor, publ by ANPA.
# Osborne , A. D. and Pope, N. V., 'An Angular Momentum Synthesis of "Gravitational" and "Electrostatic" Forces', Galilean Electrodynamics, Vol. 14, Special Issue 1, Spring 2003, pp. 9-19.
# 2008, A Critical Perspective on Modern Physics: a talk delivered at the PIRT Conference, Imperial College, London, UK Sept. 2008. 'NASA's Need of New Physics'.

==Books==

* 1999 Instantaneous Action At A Distance in Modern Physics, Pro and Contra, Eds.: Andrew E Chubykalo, Viv Pope and Roman Smirnov-Rueda, Nova Science NY, USA.
* 2005, Immediate Distant Action and Correlation in Modern Physics: Eds. N. Vivian Pope, Andrew E. Chubykalo and Alan F. T. Winfield, Edwin Mellen Press, Lewiston, NY, USA.
* 2007, Light-Speed, Gravitation and Quantum Instantaneity, Anthony D. Osborne and N. Vivian Pope, phi Philosophical Enterprises, Swansea, UK. ISBN 0-9503790-6-9.
* 2010 Wondering in the Wilderness, A. M. and N. V. Pope, phi, Swansea, ISBN 978-0-9505790-7-4.
* 2010 God's Country, N. Vivian Pope, phi, Swansea, ISBN 978-0-9503790-8-5
* 2011 A Critical Review of Contemporary Physics and Cosmology, Pope and Osborne, (to appear).
* 2016 Einstein's Lost Legacy: A Critical Review of Contemporary Physics and Cosmology, N. V. Pope and A D Osborne

==Abstracts==

* 2011 - "[[Extraordinary Physics, or Is Modern Theoretical Physics Just a Teetering 'House of Cards'?
]]" ([http://www.naturalphilosophy.org/pdf/abstracts/abstracts_6180.pdf Read in full])
* 2009 - "[[Extraordinary Physics, or Is Modern Theoretical Physics Just a Teetering 'House of Cards'?]]" ([http://www.naturalphilosophy.org/pdf/abstracts/abstracts_2785.pdf Read in full])
* 2009 - "[[NASA's Missing Spin: The Pioneer and Missing Mass Anomalies]]" ([http://www.naturalphilosophy.org/pdf/abstracts/abstracts_1852.pdf Read in full])
* 2008 - "[[A Critique of Modern Physics]]" ([http://www.naturalphilosophy.org/pdf/abstracts/abstracts_3061.pdf Read in full])
* 2008 - "[[A Neo-Phenomenalist Alternative to Special Relativity Theory]]"
* 2008 - "[[Orbital Time Dilation]]"
* 2008 - "[[The Pioneer Anomaly or a ?Dissident' Perspective on Modern Physics]]" ([http://www.physicsfoundations.org/PIRT_XI/papers/POPE%20ABSTRACT%202008.doc Read in full])
* 2006 - "[[Breaking the Light Barrier to Scientific Progress]]" ([http://www.physicsfoundations.org/PIRT_X/papers/POPE%20PAPER%202006.pdf Read in full])
* 2004 - "[[From Light in Space to Space in Light, the Complete Relativistic Revolution]]" ([http://www.naturalphilosophy.org/pdf/abstracts/abstracts_811.pdf Read in full])
* 2004 - "[[The Logical Redundancy of Einstein?s Second Postulate]]"
* 2003 - "[[An Angular Momentum Synthesis of ?Gravitational? and ?Electrostatic? Forces]]"
* 2000 - "[[The Angular Momentum Aether]]"
* 2000 - "[[An Angular Momentum Synthesis of Gravitational and Electrostatic Forces]]"
* 1999 - "[[The Complete Physics Heresy]]"
* 1999 - "[[Newton is Dead, Long Live Newton]]"
* 1997 - "[[A Quantum-Digital Theory of Light]]"
* 1986 - "[[Is Relativity Quantized?]]"

==Books==

* 2008 - "[[Light Speed, Gravitation and Quantum Instantaneity]]" ([http://www.amazon.co.uk/Light-Speed-Gravitation-Quantum-instantaneity/dp/0950379069 Read in full])
* 2005 - "[[Immediate Distant Action and Correlation in Modern Physics: The Balanced Universe]]" ([http://www.amazon.com/Immediate-Distant-Action-Correlation-Physics/dp/0773460640/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1215901100&sr=1-1 Read in full])
* 2004 - "[[The Eye of the Beholder: The Role of the Observer in Modern Physics]]" ([http://www.gwales.com/bibliographic/?isbn=0950379050 Read in full])
* 1999 - "[[Instantaneous Action at a Distance in Modern Physics: Pro and Contra]]" ([http://www.amazon.com/Instantaneous-Action-Distance-Modern-Physics/dp/1560726989/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1215902541&sr=1-1 Read in full])
* 1981 - "[[Relativising Relativity]]" ([http://www.amazon.com/Relativising-Relativity-N-Vivian-Pope/dp/0950379034/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1216315170&sr=8-1 Read in full])
* 1975 - "[[Philosophy: An Outline of the Discipline and its Sub-Disciplines]]" ([http://www.amazon.com/Philosophy-outline-discipline-its-sub-disciplines/dp/0950379018/ref=sr_11_1?ie=UTF8&qid=1218214506&sr=11-1 Read in full])

[[Category:Scientist|Pope Neville]]

Vivian Pope

2021-02-09T14:03:30Z

CriticalT: /* Books */

{{Infobox scientist
| name = Vivian Pope
| image = Vivian Pope 292.jpg
| alt = Vivian Pope
| birth_date = {{birth date|1931|01|22|mf=y}}
| death_date = {{birth date|2012|03|24|mf=y}}
| fields = [[Hon. Professor of Relativistic Quantum Physics]], [[. Member of the Scientific Advisory Board]], [[Internati]]
| residence = Swansea., South Wales, United Kingdom
| nationality = Welsh
| known_for = [[Relativity]], [[Space]], [[Time]], [[Motion]], [[IAAD]], [[Mach's Principle]]
}}

'''N. Vivian (Viv) Pope''' worked for almost twenty years in the telecommunications industry, leaving to become a mature-age student at the University of Wales, Bangor. Graduating in the Philosophy of Science, he then became a lecturer at the Burton-on-Trent Further Education College, Staffordshire where he taught Liberal Studies and Philosophy. He was also tutor/counselor for the Open University. He took early retirement from these posts in order to concentrate on his researches into the philosophical foundations of modern physics. He has published numerous papers and books on the subject, both on his own and in collaboration with his younger colleague, Dr. Anthony Osborne.

Here is his fascinating story in his own words:

I am now (in 2011) eighty years old, physically disabled, but not mentally, thank God! This disability follows from an all-too vigorous young life (weightlifting, motor-racing - plus crashing) wrestling and general lunacy), all this in an eminently individualistic (i.e., un-clubbable) capacity.

==Early education==

As you may gather, I was a rather unruly youth. Educationally speaking, I was a 'dropout' - a 'dissident', you might say, right from the very start. During the Second World War, at the age of ten I was evacuated with my younger sister away from our home town of Swansea which was being heavily bombed. Separated from my sister, I was sent to a small country school in mid-Wales where the teaching was in the Welsh language. I am very Welsh as my DNA attests, but my family (apart from my maternal grandparents) did not speak the language. In the industrial town of Swansea. the English language was predominant, and I was not encouraged to speak my mother tongue. Thus, in the entirely Welsh-Speaking community into which I had been precipitated, I became educationally disadvantaged. The school was in Gelli Aur *(Welsh for 'Golden Grove'), and that is where I first learned to become an expert in truancy. In short, while everyone else was at school I went 'walkabout' in what I later described in a recent book on that era, as 'God's country'.

This expertise in truancy continued when I returned to my hometown, so that I twice failed my entrance examination for Grammar School (High School). However, I passed an intelligence test which, luckily for me, had no academic content to it. Thus, in 1943, I became a student at the Junior Technical School (JTS), Swansea. The workshop practice with files,  lathes, shaping machines and so on was much to my liking; but when it came to academic, sit-down-and-learn subjects, Physics and Chemistry in particular, being desperately disappointed and bored with the way these subjects were taught, I found a way of escaping school altogether. In this way I gained my own brand of education in picking up interesting bits and pieces of junk in the local scrap-yards and testing my home-made radios with a fellow escapee in the same park (Cwmdonkin) that our famous countryman, the poet Dylan Thomas frequented and has written about. In general, then, from my earlier days, my days were occupied by inventing things and, on occasions, playing football with my friends, including my yet-to-become-famous, Cwmbwrla schoolmate, footballer John Charles. From then on, Most of my time was spent in physical and generally exploratory, sometimes dangerous, pursuits with a Forestfach gang of roustabouts of the same ilk. (The Welsh 'Cwmbwrla', by the way, means 'Valley of the Pure Voice'., and Fforestfach means 'Little Forest').

==Marriage and family==

At school, the sorts of pupils I most implacably detested were the scholars, the ones with the academic promise and aspirations. And then, in 1946, I met one of these detestable scholars, an Oxbridge hopeful named Mary Thomas, from the 'upper-crust' Girls' High School in Swansea. Through her, I obtained, by stealth and tender persuasion, the education in literacy and arts which I needed but could never have obtained through Educational coercion. We were married in 1953, she at twenty and I at twenty-two. We now have three daughters and eight grandchildren.

From the Tech, I was somehow transferred, at sixteen, to the Dynevor Grammar school from which, after half a term, I left to become a trainee draughtsman at the local steelworks (Cwmfelin, meaning Valley of the Mill ). After six months as an engineering draughtsman, I followed my father into the telecommunications industry, where I worked as a telephone engineer for eighteen years, interrupted by two years National Service in the Royal Air Force (1950-52) as a Radio Direction-finding and Air Traffic Control Operator, plus unofficial improver of the radio equipment. After the RAF I returned to my job, during which time my wife had begun her teaching career. After I left the RAF, through my father, Donald Edward Pope, who was an excellent male role-model and much respected amateur astronomer, as well as being a philosopher and far-sighted liberal thinker, I became interested in Astronomy and it was through membership of the Astronomical Society, at the Royal Institution, Swansea, that I was introduced to Relativity Theory.

This galvanized me. It seemed absurd to be told that time was not the same everywhere in the way I had somehow automatically assumed. Plaguing my father about it, in exasperation, no doubt, he told me to 'ask Einstein'. I left it to Mary to find Einstein's address. This she did and, naively, I wrote to Einstein asking him to explain something which, as I learned afterward, was known as the 'Clock Paradox'. To everyone's amazement; - not least my father's - Einstein sent me a very encouraging reply which is now kept as a treasured item in the Swansea County Archives: [http://www.swansea.gov.uk/westglamorganarchives http://www.swansea.gov.uk/westglamorganarchives]. to be read only under staff supervision. This has appeared several times in the media including, most recently, on television where it was valued as some thousands of pounds.

 

During these years, continuing my work as a telecoms engineer, I embarked on the course set for me by Einstein's reply to my question, which at the time, I had failed to understand. Eventually, I came to realize that if what one person could discover about nature was true, then that same truth should be discoverable by others in different ways, otherwise that discovery could not be an entirely objective one.

'''A seminal, life-changing discovery'''

And this, indeed, is what I did discover; another way of reaching the same conclusion as Einstein regarding the dilation of time with relative motion. This was not by the conventional and highly complex mathematical-physics means of 'electrodynamics' and 'light-velocity' but by the very much simpler, purely graphical means of the geometry which I had learned to use as an engineering draftsman. This confirmed, independently, what Einstein had said in his letter, and concurred in correspondence with Herman Bondi, the Mathematical Physicist and Astronomer, that there is no such thing as the 'clock paradox'. Most significant, however, was my discovery of the fact that the same conclusions that Einstein had come to, regarding space and time could be deduced without reference to his  mystifying concept of light having a 'velocity' which is constant, not only to space itself but also relative to all observers moving or stationary within that space. (This was also concurred by Bondi.) In other words, my lateral-thinking alternative showed that Einstein's Second Axiom of Special Relativity is redundant, hence so is all the conventional talk about 'electromagnetic propagation' in relation to relativity. It was this discovery which led, later, to my work on 'quantum instantaneity'. (lately, an article appeared in New Scientist reporting that more than just a few mainstream physicists have come to the same conclusion (See 'Shedding Light on Light', N.S., 1/11/08, pp. 28-31).

==University==

In my pursuit of this subject, in extramural contacts with various members of the Physics and Philosophy departments of Swansea University, I was invited to attend staff-student seminars. This was on an informal, day-release, basis in which I continued my job in telecommunications whilst getting involved in discussions about Wittgenstein and Linguistic Analysis. Then, in 1965, two of the Swansea University lecturers recommended me to the Principal of the Workers Education College in North Wales (Coleg Harlech) and, with my wife's encouragement, I became a student at that college. There, I set aside my technical training and studied Arts subjects, such as Philosophy, Psychology and Sociology, plus History of Ideas and Literature. Despite my earlier leanings towards scientific pursuits I took to all this like a duck to water and, in 1966 I was invited to study for a degree at the University College of North Wales, Bangor. Having moved my family to that region while I pursued my studies, in 1969 I graduated with [http://www.poams.org/10_seminal_publications.html Honours] in [http://www.poams.org/10_seminal_publications.html Philosophy of Science], with ancillary subjects Logic, Sociology and Psychology. For the following year I stayed on at University to gain a teaching certificate n Adult Education, during which time I also started on my Dissertation for the further degree

In 1970 I became a teacher of these subjects, in Adult Education, at Burton-on-Trent Technical College in the Midlands of England. This became a centre for the then nascent Open University for which I became a Tutor, Counselor and Study-Centre Coordinator. (as already explained on the NPA 'Pope' page).

A few years later I became involved with MENSA, who published an article of mine entitled 'The Overdue Revolution' (see [http://www.poams.org/ http://www.poams.org/] in the section: 'Seminal Publications'). This enjoyed a good reception among the membership of that organization, to the extent that I was invited to subscribe my ideas on a regular basis to the MENSA Science-Interest Group, SPACESIGNL, which I did for some time thereafter.

==CERN==

In 1975 I had the opportunity of visiting CERN the atomic research laboratory in Geneva. In the capacity of an editor/reporter for a philosophical 'Viewspaper', I interviewed, among others, the Director, V. F. Weisskopf, T. D. Lee (discoverer of the 'meson') and John Bell (of 'Bell's Inequalities' fame). I also observed some of the experiments. All of this I found profoundly enlightening. (My report on it was written up in phi the Philosophical Viewspaper: ISSN 0305-5833.)

==Natural Philosophy==

In 1990 I was invited to do a talk in Imperial College, London. This was for the PIRT (Physical Interpretations of Relativity Theory) association. My talk was entitled 'Instantaneous Relativistic Action-at-a-Distance'. An American professor who had attended the talk insisted on my publishing it, which I did, and persuaded me to attend the Cambridge based Alternative Natural Philosophy Association (ANPA). In this Association, I have presented many papers and became Secretary and Editor of the annual ANPA Newsletter (ISSN 1358-2240). I served in this capacity for about five years until I was forced to resign these posts due to ill health. Later, as a contributing 'back bencher', so to speak, a new President of the Association sought to ban me for being 'too Socratic'. (The 'Socratic Method' is to discover truth by the logical elimination of error. Pointing out errors in people's theories by logical reductio ad absurdum (reduction to absurdity) upsets people and is what led to Socrates, the Father of Natural Philosophy, being executed.)

==Westminster==

But now comes 'the crunch' which, as I'm sure you will see, speaks volumes for the need of innovative thinking in education. In our concern for this, as teachers, my wife and I were invited, under the auspices of a Liberal Member of Parliament, Clement Freud, to attend meetings in Westminster, London, where we presented our case for encouraging creative free-thinking in our high schools and universities (de-schooling, or anti-scholasticism as it was called). Against the conventional mainstream, with its emphasis on the testing and examining of students for proficiency in the attainment of Educationally preconceived 'mostly commercial ' ends, it was, as we eventually told ourselves, 'like trying to swim up a waterfall'.

'''Falling foul of the Educational Arts-Science apartheid'''

Nothing was more indicative of this mainstream pressure towards educational conformity than what happened when, in 1971, I presented my Masters Thesis for examination. In my run-up to this thesis I first had to present to my professor at Bangor, C. K. W Mundle, a dissertation for pre-evaluation and guidance. My thesis was entitled 'A Philosophical Re-Examination of Some Present Physical Concepts' (1972). This proposed a philosophical merger of relativistic and quantum physics; but far from encouraging me to present this truly innovative piece of work, I was warned that I 'should not presume to tell physicists what they should and shouldn't do. 'If I persisted on that course,' I was firmly told, 'I would inevitably fail.'

And, inevitably, I suppose, it did fail - twice (1972 and 1973). Referred to Professor Sir Karl Popper for a second opinion, he declared that 'it was not the thesis that had failed but its examiners'. In any event, it was the ideas developed in that thesis which have since been advanced in international conferences and in what some people have dubbed my 'heretical' books and papers. This was in my later connection, from 1982, with Keele University, UK as a Research Associate of the Mathematics Department. The ongoing Physics/Mathematics collaboration with Dr, Anthony Osborne, in that department has become known as POAMS, the Pope-Osborne Angular Momentum Synthesis (see [http://www.poams.org/ http://www.poams.org/]).

'''Doctor or Not? (Now Professor)'''

==This was written Earlier==

Although I am often referred to as 'Doctor', the Doctorate under which my researches with Osborne in the Mathematics Department at Keele University were at first conducted soon ran into deep trouble, This was because my thesis, by its very nature, fell between the two very same warring Educational factions of Arts and Science that it sought to unite. For instance, asked by the Maths Department to take oversight of the Philosophical content of my work with Osborne, the Philosophy Department declined. This was on the basis that as an Arts department they felt 'not competent' to judge my peculiar admixture of Mathematical Physics and Philosophy. So although I am assured that my work is well over the standard required for a Doctorate, as an attempt to merge two conventionally separate disciplines it falls into an academic limbo where it is conventionally unclassifiable, hence un-examinable, So my academic advisers tell me that I should just 'forget it'. 'Doctor', 'Mister' or whatever, they advise, is quite okay, although in the end I personally prefer just plain 'Viv Pope'. But that, too, has been frowned upon by some of my colleagues as being 'too informal' for publications purposes. So I've given up on it and let it come as it may. The moral seems to be that there are no doctorates awarded for heresy, which means that my status in the Educational establishment, even as a bona fide lecturer, administrator and researcher, has always been equivocal, hence a 'running sore' of embarrassment to The System.

==This was written later==

Since the above was written I have been made an Honourary Professor of Relativistic Quiantum Physics and Member of the Scientific Advisory Board, International Institute of Theoretical Physics and Mathematics,Einstein-Galilei, Prato, Italy.

In sum, then, I am honoured to be referred to in academic circles as one of the 'top heretics on this planet' or, in some sectors, as 'The Sh**-Stirring Welshman'. I am honoured because it is a truism that all the significant advances in science have been 'heresies' in their day. My heresy is that I have sought to break the Arts-Science deadlock in contemporary Education by re-connecting Physics with Philosophy in what was originally known as Natural Philosophy. This is by earthing the conceptually airborne Relativity of Einstein in the quantised relativism of Einstein's philosophical mentor Mach. The result is a form of neo-Machian physics-philosophy known as Normal Realism, which, as compared to the theoretical extravagances of Modern Physics and Cosmology, has been called 'a triumph of commonsense'.

'''Recent:'''

In 2010 I was contacted by Masood Sanati, a physicist at Tehran University requesting my views on the mysteries of Charge Distribution. After much discussion on the subject he invited me to Iran to give some talks on the subject and to tutor his students. This was out of the question, not least duev tom my and Mary's health problems, but Sanati was very persistent in trying to get me an award for my work from the Khwarizmi Foundation. He then recommended me to Dr. Christian Corda who was setting up the International Institute for Theoretical Physics and Mathematics Einstein-Galilei at Prato in Italy. As a result, I am now a member of the Scientific Advisory Board with the title of Honorary Professor of Relativistic Quantum Physics.

More recently, in my new official status of Professor of Relativistic Quantum Physics in Prato Italy (see above) I am engaged in a an experimental project entitled, '''An experimental proof of predicted Changes in Newton's ?Gravitational Constant' G for Spinning Bodies'.'''

'''Articles:'''

# 1986 'Abstract: Is Relativity Quantized?' Speculations in Science and Technology, Vol. 9, No. 4, p. 242.
# 1987 'A New Approach to Special Relativity' (with A.D. Osborne). International Journal of Mathematical Education in Science and Technology, Vol. 18, No. 2, pp. 191-198.
# 1987 (April) 'The Overdue Revolution'. MENSA, pp. 28-29.
# 1988 'Arts View of Science'. Times Higher Educational Supplement (Letter, November 11th.)
# 1988 'Floating Free'. Times Higher Ed. Suppl. (Ltr. Dec. 23rd.)
# 1989 'Experiments in God's Eye'. Times Higher Ed. Suppl. (Article, Feb. 2nd.)
# 1989 'The New World Synthesis'. Philosophia Mathematica (II) No. 1, Vol. 4, pp. 23-28.
# 1989 'Relativity is Kids' Stuff'. School Science Review, Vol. 70 (253) pp. 86-87.
# 1990 'Changing Philosophy'. Times Higher Ed. Suppl. (Ltr. May 4th.)
# 1990 'The Quantum is Kids' Stuff'. School Sci. Rev. Vol. 71, pp. 105-107.
# 1990 School Sci. Rev. (Forum) Vol.72, No. 258, p. 161.
# 1990 'Instantaneous Relativistic Action-at-a-Distance' (with A.D. Osborne). Proceedings of the 2nd BSPS conference: Physical Interpretations of Relativity (PIRT) pp. 460-488.
# 1992 'Relativity and Realism' (with A.D. Osborne). Proceedings of the 3rd BSPS conference: PIRT, pp. 281-287.
# 1992 'The Action-at-a-Distance Spectrum' (with A.D. Osborne). Proceedings of the 3rd BSPS conference: PIRT pp. 253-280.
# 1992 'Instantaneous Relativistic Action-at-a-Distance' (with A. D Osborne). Physics Essays, Vol. 5, No. 3, pp. 409-421.
# 1992 'The Sequential Paradigm', Proc. of the 13th Annual International Meeting of the Alternative Natural Philosophy Association (ANPA), Sept. 1991, pp. 55-65.
# 1993 'An Alternative Natural Philosophy', Proc of the 14th Annual International Meeting of ANPA, Sept 1992, pp. 113-130.
# 1994 'Normal Realism: A Challenge to Physicists'. Proc. of the 15th Annual International Meeting of ANPA, Sept. 1993, pp. 111-115.
# Also 'A Rustic Rediscovery of Relativity', pp. 116-130.
# 1994 'A Critical Review of the PIRT Conferences to Date'. Proc. of the 4th BSPS Conference: PIRT, pp 257-272.
# 1995 'In Search of the ANPA Philosophy'. ANPA Newsletter No. 15, ISSN 1358-2240, pp. 6-10.
# 1995 'Instantaneous Gravitational and Inertial Action-at-a-Distance' (with A.D. Osborne). Physics Essays, Vol. 8, No. 3, pp. 384-397.
# 1995 'The Lingering Death of Western Dualism', Proc. of the 16th Annual International Meeting of ANPA, ISBN 0952621509, pp. 117-121. Also 'The Language of Light Velocity', pp. 122-134.
# 1996 'The Two Aspects of Special Relativity', ANPA Newsletter, No. 16, p. 10. Also 'Empiricism and the Quantum', pp. 8-16.
# 1996 'Copenhagen, Yes or No?' Apeiron, Vol. 3, No.1, pp. 20-21.
# 1996 'A Philosophical Analysis of the Concept of Motion in Relation to Action-at-a-Distance', Apeiron, Special Issue, ed. M. W. Evans. (accepted but did not appear, due to a difference of opinion with editor).
# 1996 'A Response' (to M. W. Evans), Apeiron, '@ Issue' section, Vol. 3, No 3-4, pp. 124-125.
# 1996 'The Dogma of the Photon', in 'Philosophies', the Proceedings of the 17th Annual International Meeting of the Alternative Natural Philosophy Association, pp. 175-188.
# 1997, 'A Quantum-Digital Theory of Light', in The Present Status of the Quantum Theory of Light, Eds. Jeffers, Roy, Vigier and Hunter, (Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht, Netherlands.)
# 1997 'Is ANPA an Altogether Non-Philosophical Association?' Newsletter 17 of the Alternative Natural Philosophy Association (ed. N.V. Pope) 12-14.
# 1997 'The Gateway to Paradox' and 'The Cinematic Model of Quantum Touching' in Mereologies, the Proceedings of the 18th International Meeting of the Alternative Natural Philosophy Association., 62-66, 134-135.
# 1998 'Shedding Light on Light' in Causality and Locality in Modern Physics, Eds. G. Hunter, et al,, Kluwer, Academic Publishers, Dordrecht NL, pp 187-194.
# 1998 'A Relativistic Quantum Phenomenology', Proceedings of the 5th International Conference; Problems of Space, Time and Motion, St. Petersburg, Russia. June, 1998.
# 1998 'Solving the "c" Conundrum of the Velocity of Light Relative to the Vacuum', Proceedings of the Physical Interpretations of Relativity Theory, London, September 1998.
# 1999 'Newton is Dead, Long Live Newton', in Instantaneous Action-at-a-Distance in Modern Physics: Pro and Contra, Editors: A. E. Chubykalo, Viv Pope and R. Smirnov-Rueda, published by Nova Science. NY.
# 1999. 'The Complete Physics Heresy', Galilean Electrodynamics, ed. C. Kolb-Whitney, Mass. USA.
# 2000. 'Too Many Theories, Too Few Syntheses', Physical Interpretations of Relativity Theory VII Proceedings, ed. M. C. Duffy.
# 2000. 'A Logical Reconciliation of Einstein and Newton or a Synthesis Relativity and Quantum Theory', Journal of New Energy, Ed. Hal Fox, Vol. 5, No. 1.
# 2001. 'An Angular Momentum Synthesis of Gravitational and Electrostatic Forces' in Physics as a Science Symposium Proceedings, publ. in Journal of New Energy, Vol. 5, No. 3.
# 2001. 'The Tantalising Two-Slit Experiment' in Recent Advances in Relativity Theory, Vol. 2.: Material Interpretations, Es. M. C. Duffy and M. Wegener, Hadronic Press, Florida, USA.
# 2001. 'Umbala: a Polemic Against Jargon Addiction in Modern Science', Proceedings of the 22nd annual International Meeting of the Alternative Natural Philosophy Association Ed. Arleta Griffor, publ by ANPA.
# Osborne , A. D. and Pope, N. V., 'An Angular Momentum Synthesis of "Gravitational" and "Electrostatic" Forces', Galilean Electrodynamics, Vol. 14, Special Issue 1, Spring 2003, pp. 9-19.
# 2008, A Critical Perspective on Modern Physics: a talk delivered at the PIRT Conference, Imperial College, London, UK Sept. 2008. 'NASA's Need of New Physics'.

==Books==

* 1999 Instantaneous Action At A Distance in Modern Physics, Pro and Contra, Eds.: Andrew E Chubykalo, Viv Pope and Roman Smirnov-Rueda, Nova Science NY, USA.
* 2005, Immediate Distant Action and Correlation in Modern Physics: Eds. N. Vivian Pope, Andrew E. Chubykalo and Alan F. T. Winfield, Edwin Mellen Press, Lewiston, NY, USA.
* 2007, Light-Speed, Gravitation and Quantum Instantaneity, Anthony D. Osborne and N. Vivian Pope, phi Philosophical Enterprises, Swansea, UK. ISBN 0-9503790-6-9.
* 2010 Wondering in the Wilderness, A. M. and N. V. Pope, phi, Swansea, ISBN 978-0-9505790-7-4.
* 2010 God's Country, N. Vivian Pope, phi, Swansea, ISBN 978-0-9503790-8-5
* 2011 A Critical Review of Contemporary Physics and Cosmology, Pope and Osborne, (to appear).
* 2016 Einstein's Lost Legacy: A Critical Review of Contemporary Physics and Cosmology, N. V. Pope and A D Osborne

==Abstracts==

* 2011 - "[[Extraordinary Physics, or Is Modern Theoretical Physics Just a Teetering 'House of Cards'?
]]" ([http://www.naturalphilosophy.org/pdf/abstracts/abstracts_6180.pdf Read in full])
* 2009 - "[[Extraordinary Physics, or Is Modern Theoretical Physics Just a Teetering 'House of Cards'?]]" ([http://www.naturalphilosophy.org/pdf/abstracts/abstracts_2785.pdf Read in full])
* 2009 - "[[NASA's Missing Spin: The Pioneer and Missing Mass Anomalies]]" ([http://www.naturalphilosophy.org/pdf/abstracts/abstracts_1852.pdf Read in full])
* 2008 - "[[A Critique of Modern Physics]]" ([http://www.naturalphilosophy.org/pdf/abstracts/abstracts_3061.pdf Read in full])
* 2008 - "[[A Neo-Phenomenalist Alternative to Special Relativity Theory]]"
* 2008 - "[[Orbital Time Dilation]]"
* 2008 - "[[The Pioneer Anomaly or a ?Dissident' Perspective on Modern Physics]]" ([http://www.physicsfoundations.org/PIRT_XI/papers/POPE%20ABSTRACT%202008.doc Read in full])
* 2006 - "[[Breaking the Light Barrier to Scientific Progress]]" ([http://www.physicsfoundations.org/PIRT_X/papers/POPE%20PAPER%202006.pdf Read in full])
* 2004 - "[[From Light in Space to Space in Light, the Complete Relativistic Revolution]]" ([http://www.naturalphilosophy.org/pdf/abstracts/abstracts_811.pdf Read in full])
* 2004 - "[[The Logical Redundancy of Einstein?s Second Postulate]]"
* 2003 - "[[An Angular Momentum Synthesis of ?Gravitational? and ?Electrostatic? Forces]]"
* 2000 - "[[The Angular Momentum Aether]]"
* 2000 - "[[An Angular Momentum Synthesis of Gravitational and Electrostatic Forces]]"
* 1999 - "[[The Complete Physics Heresy]]"
* 1999 - "[[Newton is Dead, Long Live Newton]]"
* 1997 - "[[A Quantum-Digital Theory of Light]]"
* 1986 - "[[Is Relativity Quantized?]]"

==Books==

* 2008 - "[[Light Speed, Gravitation and Quantum Instantaneity]]" ([http://www.amazon.co.uk/Light-Speed-Gravitation-Quantum-instantaneity/dp/0950379069 Read in full])
* 2005 - "[[Immediate Distant Action and Correlation in Modern Physics: The Balanced Universe]]" ([http://www.amazon.com/Immediate-Distant-Action-Correlation-Physics/dp/0773460640/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1215901100&sr=1-1 Read in full])
* 2004 - "[[The Eye of the Beholder: The Role of the Observer in Modern Physics]]" ([http://www.gwales.com/bibliographic/?isbn=0950379050 Read in full])
* 1999 - "[[Instantaneous Action at a Distance in Modern Physics: Pro and Contra]]" ([http://www.amazon.com/Instantaneous-Action-Distance-Modern-Physics/dp/1560726989/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1215902541&sr=1-1 Read in full])
* 1981 - "[[Relativising Relativity]]" ([http://www.amazon.com/Relativising-Relativity-N-Vivian-Pope/dp/0950379034/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1216315170&sr=8-1 Read in full])
* 1975 - "[[Philosophy: An Outline of the Discipline and its Sub-Disciplines]]" ([http://www.amazon.com/Philosophy-outline-discipline-its-sub-disciplines/dp/0950379018/ref=sr_11_1?ie=UTF8&qid=1218214506&sr=11-1 Read in full])

[[Category:Scientist|Pope Neville]]

Vivian Pope

2021-02-09T14:02:54Z

CriticalT: /* Books */ Adding a posthumously published book by N V Pope to the list

{{Infobox scientist
| name = Vivian Pope
| image = Vivian Pope 292.jpg
| alt = Vivian Pope
| birth_date = {{birth date|1931|01|22|mf=y}}
| death_date = {{birth date|2012|03|24|mf=y}}
| fields = [[Hon. Professor of Relativistic Quantum Physics]], [[. Member of the Scientific Advisory Board]], [[Internati]]
| residence = Swansea., South Wales, United Kingdom
| nationality = Welsh
| known_for = [[Relativity]], [[Space]], [[Time]], [[Motion]], [[IAAD]], [[Mach's Principle]]
}}

'''N. Vivian (Viv) Pope''' worked for almost twenty years in the telecommunications industry, leaving to become a mature-age student at the University of Wales, Bangor. Graduating in the Philosophy of Science, he then became a lecturer at the Burton-on-Trent Further Education College, Staffordshire where he taught Liberal Studies and Philosophy. He was also tutor/counselor for the Open University. He took early retirement from these posts in order to concentrate on his researches into the philosophical foundations of modern physics. He has published numerous papers and books on the subject, both on his own and in collaboration with his younger colleague, Dr. Anthony Osborne.

Here is his fascinating story in his own words:

I am now (in 2011) eighty years old, physically disabled, but not mentally, thank God! This disability follows from an all-too vigorous young life (weightlifting, motor-racing - plus crashing) wrestling and general lunacy), all this in an eminently individualistic (i.e., un-clubbable) capacity.

==Early education==

As you may gather, I was a rather unruly youth. Educationally speaking, I was a 'dropout' - a 'dissident', you might say, right from the very start. During the Second World War, at the age of ten I was evacuated with my younger sister away from our home town of Swansea which was being heavily bombed. Separated from my sister, I was sent to a small country school in mid-Wales where the teaching was in the Welsh language. I am very Welsh as my DNA attests, but my family (apart from my maternal grandparents) did not speak the language. In the industrial town of Swansea. the English language was predominant, and I was not encouraged to speak my mother tongue. Thus, in the entirely Welsh-Speaking community into which I had been precipitated, I became educationally disadvantaged. The school was in Gelli Aur *(Welsh for 'Golden Grove'), and that is where I first learned to become an expert in truancy. In short, while everyone else was at school I went 'walkabout' in what I later described in a recent book on that era, as 'God's country'.

This expertise in truancy continued when I returned to my hometown, so that I twice failed my entrance examination for Grammar School (High School). However, I passed an intelligence test which, luckily for me, had no academic content to it. Thus, in 1943, I became a student at the Junior Technical School (JTS), Swansea. The workshop practice with files,  lathes, shaping machines and so on was much to my liking; but when it came to academic, sit-down-and-learn subjects, Physics and Chemistry in particular, being desperately disappointed and bored with the way these subjects were taught, I found a way of escaping school altogether. In this way I gained my own brand of education in picking up interesting bits and pieces of junk in the local scrap-yards and testing my home-made radios with a fellow escapee in the same park (Cwmdonkin) that our famous countryman, the poet Dylan Thomas frequented and has written about. In general, then, from my earlier days, my days were occupied by inventing things and, on occasions, playing football with my friends, including my yet-to-become-famous, Cwmbwrla schoolmate, footballer John Charles. From then on, Most of my time was spent in physical and generally exploratory, sometimes dangerous, pursuits with a Forestfach gang of roustabouts of the same ilk. (The Welsh 'Cwmbwrla', by the way, means 'Valley of the Pure Voice'., and Fforestfach means 'Little Forest').

==Marriage and family==

At school, the sorts of pupils I most implacably detested were the scholars, the ones with the academic promise and aspirations. And then, in 1946, I met one of these detestable scholars, an Oxbridge hopeful named Mary Thomas, from the 'upper-crust' Girls' High School in Swansea. Through her, I obtained, by stealth and tender persuasion, the education in literacy and arts which I needed but could never have obtained through Educational coercion. We were married in 1953, she at twenty and I at twenty-two. We now have three daughters and eight grandchildren.

From the Tech, I was somehow transferred, at sixteen, to the Dynevor Grammar school from which, after half a term, I left to become a trainee draughtsman at the local steelworks (Cwmfelin, meaning Valley of the Mill ). After six months as an engineering draughtsman, I followed my father into the telecommunications industry, where I worked as a telephone engineer for eighteen years, interrupted by two years National Service in the Royal Air Force (1950-52) as a Radio Direction-finding and Air Traffic Control Operator, plus unofficial improver of the radio equipment. After the RAF I returned to my job, during which time my wife had begun her teaching career. After I left the RAF, through my father, Donald Edward Pope, who was an excellent male role-model and much respected amateur astronomer, as well as being a philosopher and far-sighted liberal thinker, I became interested in Astronomy and it was through membership of the Astronomical Society, at the Royal Institution, Swansea, that I was introduced to Relativity Theory.

This galvanized me. It seemed absurd to be told that time was not the same everywhere in the way I had somehow automatically assumed. Plaguing my father about it, in exasperation, no doubt, he told me to 'ask Einstein'. I left it to Mary to find Einstein's address. This she did and, naively, I wrote to Einstein asking him to explain something which, as I learned afterward, was known as the 'Clock Paradox'. To everyone's amazement; - not least my father's - Einstein sent me a very encouraging reply which is now kept as a treasured item in the Swansea County Archives: [http://www.swansea.gov.uk/westglamorganarchives http://www.swansea.gov.uk/westglamorganarchives]. to be read only under staff supervision. This has appeared several times in the media including, most recently, on television where it was valued as some thousands of pounds.

 

During these years, continuing my work as a telecoms engineer, I embarked on the course set for me by Einstein's reply to my question, which at the time, I had failed to understand. Eventually, I came to realize that if what one person could discover about nature was true, then that same truth should be discoverable by others in different ways, otherwise that discovery could not be an entirely objective one.

'''A seminal, life-changing discovery'''

And this, indeed, is what I did discover; another way of reaching the same conclusion as Einstein regarding the dilation of time with relative motion. This was not by the conventional and highly complex mathematical-physics means of 'electrodynamics' and 'light-velocity' but by the very much simpler, purely graphical means of the geometry which I had learned to use as an engineering draftsman. This confirmed, independently, what Einstein had said in his letter, and concurred in correspondence with Herman Bondi, the Mathematical Physicist and Astronomer, that there is no such thing as the 'clock paradox'. Most significant, however, was my discovery of the fact that the same conclusions that Einstein had come to, regarding space and time could be deduced without reference to his  mystifying concept of light having a 'velocity' which is constant, not only to space itself but also relative to all observers moving or stationary within that space. (This was also concurred by Bondi.) In other words, my lateral-thinking alternative showed that Einstein's Second Axiom of Special Relativity is redundant, hence so is all the conventional talk about 'electromagnetic propagation' in relation to relativity. It was this discovery which led, later, to my work on 'quantum instantaneity'. (lately, an article appeared in New Scientist reporting that more than just a few mainstream physicists have come to the same conclusion (See 'Shedding Light on Light', N.S., 1/11/08, pp. 28-31).

==University==

In my pursuit of this subject, in extramural contacts with various members of the Physics and Philosophy departments of Swansea University, I was invited to attend staff-student seminars. This was on an informal, day-release, basis in which I continued my job in telecommunications whilst getting involved in discussions about Wittgenstein and Linguistic Analysis. Then, in 1965, two of the Swansea University lecturers recommended me to the Principal of the Workers Education College in North Wales (Coleg Harlech) and, with my wife's encouragement, I became a student at that college. There, I set aside my technical training and studied Arts subjects, such as Philosophy, Psychology and Sociology, plus History of Ideas and Literature. Despite my earlier leanings towards scientific pursuits I took to all this like a duck to water and, in 1966 I was invited to study for a degree at the University College of North Wales, Bangor. Having moved my family to that region while I pursued my studies, in 1969 I graduated with [http://www.poams.org/10_seminal_publications.html Honours] in [http://www.poams.org/10_seminal_publications.html Philosophy of Science], with ancillary subjects Logic, Sociology and Psychology. For the following year I stayed on at University to gain a teaching certificate n Adult Education, during which time I also started on my Dissertation for the further degree

In 1970 I became a teacher of these subjects, in Adult Education, at Burton-on-Trent Technical College in the Midlands of England. This became a centre for the then nascent Open University for which I became a Tutor, Counselor and Study-Centre Coordinator. (as already explained on the NPA 'Pope' page).

A few years later I became involved with MENSA, who published an article of mine entitled 'The Overdue Revolution' (see [http://www.poams.org/ http://www.poams.org/] in the section: 'Seminal Publications'). This enjoyed a good reception among the membership of that organization, to the extent that I was invited to subscribe my ideas on a regular basis to the MENSA Science-Interest Group, SPACESIGNL, which I did for some time thereafter.

==CERN==

In 1975 I had the opportunity of visiting CERN the atomic research laboratory in Geneva. In the capacity of an editor/reporter for a philosophical 'Viewspaper', I interviewed, among others, the Director, V. F. Weisskopf, T. D. Lee (discoverer of the 'meson') and John Bell (of 'Bell's Inequalities' fame). I also observed some of the experiments. All of this I found profoundly enlightening. (My report on it was written up in phi the Philosophical Viewspaper: ISSN 0305-5833.)

==Natural Philosophy==

In 1990 I was invited to do a talk in Imperial College, London. This was for the PIRT (Physical Interpretations of Relativity Theory) association. My talk was entitled 'Instantaneous Relativistic Action-at-a-Distance'. An American professor who had attended the talk insisted on my publishing it, which I did, and persuaded me to attend the Cambridge based Alternative Natural Philosophy Association (ANPA). In this Association, I have presented many papers and became Secretary and Editor of the annual ANPA Newsletter (ISSN 1358-2240). I served in this capacity for about five years until I was forced to resign these posts due to ill health. Later, as a contributing 'back bencher', so to speak, a new President of the Association sought to ban me for being 'too Socratic'. (The 'Socratic Method' is to discover truth by the logical elimination of error. Pointing out errors in people's theories by logical reductio ad absurdum (reduction to absurdity) upsets people and is what led to Socrates, the Father of Natural Philosophy, being executed.)

==Westminster==

But now comes 'the crunch' which, as I'm sure you will see, speaks volumes for the need of innovative thinking in education. In our concern for this, as teachers, my wife and I were invited, under the auspices of a Liberal Member of Parliament, Clement Freud, to attend meetings in Westminster, London, where we presented our case for encouraging creative free-thinking in our high schools and universities (de-schooling, or anti-scholasticism as it was called). Against the conventional mainstream, with its emphasis on the testing and examining of students for proficiency in the attainment of Educationally preconceived 'mostly commercial ' ends, it was, as we eventually told ourselves, 'like trying to swim up a waterfall'.

'''Falling foul of the Educational Arts-Science apartheid'''

Nothing was more indicative of this mainstream pressure towards educational conformity than what happened when, in 1971, I presented my Masters Thesis for examination. In my run-up to this thesis I first had to present to my professor at Bangor, C. K. W Mundle, a dissertation for pre-evaluation and guidance. My thesis was entitled 'A Philosophical Re-Examination of Some Present Physical Concepts' (1972). This proposed a philosophical merger of relativistic and quantum physics; but far from encouraging me to present this truly innovative piece of work, I was warned that I 'should not presume to tell physicists what they should and shouldn't do. 'If I persisted on that course,' I was firmly told, 'I would inevitably fail.'

And, inevitably, I suppose, it did fail - twice (1972 and 1973). Referred to Professor Sir Karl Popper for a second opinion, he declared that 'it was not the thesis that had failed but its examiners'. In any event, it was the ideas developed in that thesis which have since been advanced in international conferences and in what some people have dubbed my 'heretical' books and papers. This was in my later connection, from 1982, with Keele University, UK as a Research Associate of the Mathematics Department. The ongoing Physics/Mathematics collaboration with Dr, Anthony Osborne, in that department has become known as POAMS, the Pope-Osborne Angular Momentum Synthesis (see [http://www.poams.org/ http://www.poams.org/]).

'''Doctor or Not? (Now Professor)'''

==This was written Earlier==

Although I am often referred to as 'Doctor', the Doctorate under which my researches with Osborne in the Mathematics Department at Keele University were at first conducted soon ran into deep trouble, This was because my thesis, by its very nature, fell between the two very same warring Educational factions of Arts and Science that it sought to unite. For instance, asked by the Maths Department to take oversight of the Philosophical content of my work with Osborne, the Philosophy Department declined. This was on the basis that as an Arts department they felt 'not competent' to judge my peculiar admixture of Mathematical Physics and Philosophy. So although I am assured that my work is well over the standard required for a Doctorate, as an attempt to merge two conventionally separate disciplines it falls into an academic limbo where it is conventionally unclassifiable, hence un-examinable, So my academic advisers tell me that I should just 'forget it'. 'Doctor', 'Mister' or whatever, they advise, is quite okay, although in the end I personally prefer just plain 'Viv Pope'. But that, too, has been frowned upon by some of my colleagues as being 'too informal' for publications purposes. So I've given up on it and let it come as it may. The moral seems to be that there are no doctorates awarded for heresy, which means that my status in the Educational establishment, even as a bona fide lecturer, administrator and researcher, has always been equivocal, hence a 'running sore' of embarrassment to The System.

==This was written later==

Since the above was written I have been made an Honourary Professor of Relativistic Quiantum Physics and Member of the Scientific Advisory Board, International Institute of Theoretical Physics and Mathematics,Einstein-Galilei, Prato, Italy.

In sum, then, I am honoured to be referred to in academic circles as one of the 'top heretics on this planet' or, in some sectors, as 'The Sh**-Stirring Welshman'. I am honoured because it is a truism that all the significant advances in science have been 'heresies' in their day. My heresy is that I have sought to break the Arts-Science deadlock in contemporary Education by re-connecting Physics with Philosophy in what was originally known as Natural Philosophy. This is by earthing the conceptually airborne Relativity of Einstein in the quantised relativism of Einstein's philosophical mentor Mach. The result is a form of neo-Machian physics-philosophy known as Normal Realism, which, as compared to the theoretical extravagances of Modern Physics and Cosmology, has been called 'a triumph of commonsense'.

'''Recent:'''

In 2010 I was contacted by Masood Sanati, a physicist at Tehran University requesting my views on the mysteries of Charge Distribution. After much discussion on the subject he invited me to Iran to give some talks on the subject and to tutor his students. This was out of the question, not least duev tom my and Mary's health problems, but Sanati was very persistent in trying to get me an award for my work from the Khwarizmi Foundation. He then recommended me to Dr. Christian Corda who was setting up the International Institute for Theoretical Physics and Mathematics Einstein-Galilei at Prato in Italy. As a result, I am now a member of the Scientific Advisory Board with the title of Honorary Professor of Relativistic Quantum Physics.

More recently, in my new official status of Professor of Relativistic Quantum Physics in Prato Italy (see above) I am engaged in a an experimental project entitled, '''An experimental proof of predicted Changes in Newton's ?Gravitational Constant' G for Spinning Bodies'.'''

'''Articles:'''

# 1986 'Abstract: Is Relativity Quantized?' Speculations in Science and Technology, Vol. 9, No. 4, p. 242.
# 1987 'A New Approach to Special Relativity' (with A.D. Osborne). International Journal of Mathematical Education in Science and Technology, Vol. 18, No. 2, pp. 191-198.
# 1987 (April) 'The Overdue Revolution'. MENSA, pp. 28-29.
# 1988 'Arts View of Science'. Times Higher Educational Supplement (Letter, November 11th.)
# 1988 'Floating Free'. Times Higher Ed. Suppl. (Ltr. Dec. 23rd.)
# 1989 'Experiments in God's Eye'. Times Higher Ed. Suppl. (Article, Feb. 2nd.)
# 1989 'The New World Synthesis'. Philosophia Mathematica (II) No. 1, Vol. 4, pp. 23-28.
# 1989 'Relativity is Kids' Stuff'. School Science Review, Vol. 70 (253) pp. 86-87.
# 1990 'Changing Philosophy'. Times Higher Ed. Suppl. (Ltr. May 4th.)
# 1990 'The Quantum is Kids' Stuff'. School Sci. Rev. Vol. 71, pp. 105-107.
# 1990 School Sci. Rev. (Forum) Vol.72, No. 258, p. 161.
# 1990 'Instantaneous Relativistic Action-at-a-Distance' (with A.D. Osborne). Proceedings of the 2nd BSPS conference: Physical Interpretations of Relativity (PIRT) pp. 460-488.
# 1992 'Relativity and Realism' (with A.D. Osborne). Proceedings of the 3rd BSPS conference: PIRT, pp. 281-287.
# 1992 'The Action-at-a-Distance Spectrum' (with A.D. Osborne). Proceedings of the 3rd BSPS conference: PIRT pp. 253-280.
# 1992 'Instantaneous Relativistic Action-at-a-Distance' (with A. D Osborne). Physics Essays, Vol. 5, No. 3, pp. 409-421.
# 1992 'The Sequential Paradigm', Proc. of the 13th Annual International Meeting of the Alternative Natural Philosophy Association (ANPA), Sept. 1991, pp. 55-65.
# 1993 'An Alternative Natural Philosophy', Proc of the 14th Annual International Meeting of ANPA, Sept 1992, pp. 113-130.
# 1994 'Normal Realism: A Challenge to Physicists'. Proc. of the 15th Annual International Meeting of ANPA, Sept. 1993, pp. 111-115.
# Also 'A Rustic Rediscovery of Relativity', pp. 116-130.
# 1994 'A Critical Review of the PIRT Conferences to Date'. Proc. of the 4th BSPS Conference: PIRT, pp 257-272.
# 1995 'In Search of the ANPA Philosophy'. ANPA Newsletter No. 15, ISSN 1358-2240, pp. 6-10.
# 1995 'Instantaneous Gravitational and Inertial Action-at-a-Distance' (with A.D. Osborne). Physics Essays, Vol. 8, No. 3, pp. 384-397.
# 1995 'The Lingering Death of Western Dualism', Proc. of the 16th Annual International Meeting of ANPA, ISBN 0952621509, pp. 117-121. Also 'The Language of Light Velocity', pp. 122-134.
# 1996 'The Two Aspects of Special Relativity', ANPA Newsletter, No. 16, p. 10. Also 'Empiricism and the Quantum', pp. 8-16.
# 1996 'Copenhagen, Yes or No?' Apeiron, Vol. 3, No.1, pp. 20-21.
# 1996 'A Philosophical Analysis of the Concept of Motion in Relation to Action-at-a-Distance', Apeiron, Special Issue, ed. M. W. Evans. (accepted but did not appear, due to a difference of opinion with editor).
# 1996 'A Response' (to M. W. Evans), Apeiron, '@ Issue' section, Vol. 3, No 3-4, pp. 124-125.
# 1996 'The Dogma of the Photon', in 'Philosophies', the Proceedings of the 17th Annual International Meeting of the Alternative Natural Philosophy Association, pp. 175-188.
# 1997, 'A Quantum-Digital Theory of Light', in The Present Status of the Quantum Theory of Light, Eds. Jeffers, Roy, Vigier and Hunter, (Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht, Netherlands.)
# 1997 'Is ANPA an Altogether Non-Philosophical Association?' Newsletter 17 of the Alternative Natural Philosophy Association (ed. N.V. Pope) 12-14.
# 1997 'The Gateway to Paradox' and 'The Cinematic Model of Quantum Touching' in Mereologies, the Proceedings of the 18th International Meeting of the Alternative Natural Philosophy Association., 62-66, 134-135.
# 1998 'Shedding Light on Light' in Causality and Locality in Modern Physics, Eds. G. Hunter, et al,, Kluwer, Academic Publishers, Dordrecht NL, pp 187-194.
# 1998 'A Relativistic Quantum Phenomenology', Proceedings of the 5th International Conference; Problems of Space, Time and Motion, St. Petersburg, Russia. June, 1998.
# 1998 'Solving the "c" Conundrum of the Velocity of Light Relative to the Vacuum', Proceedings of the Physical Interpretations of Relativity Theory, London, September 1998.
# 1999 'Newton is Dead, Long Live Newton', in Instantaneous Action-at-a-Distance in Modern Physics: Pro and Contra, Editors: A. E. Chubykalo, Viv Pope and R. Smirnov-Rueda, published by Nova Science. NY.
# 1999. 'The Complete Physics Heresy', Galilean Electrodynamics, ed. C. Kolb-Whitney, Mass. USA.
# 2000. 'Too Many Theories, Too Few Syntheses', Physical Interpretations of Relativity Theory VII Proceedings, ed. M. C. Duffy.
# 2000. 'A Logical Reconciliation of Einstein and Newton or a Synthesis Relativity and Quantum Theory', Journal of New Energy, Ed. Hal Fox, Vol. 5, No. 1.
# 2001. 'An Angular Momentum Synthesis of Gravitational and Electrostatic Forces' in Physics as a Science Symposium Proceedings, publ. in Journal of New Energy, Vol. 5, No. 3.
# 2001. 'The Tantalising Two-Slit Experiment' in Recent Advances in Relativity Theory, Vol. 2.: Material Interpretations, Es. M. C. Duffy and M. Wegener, Hadronic Press, Florida, USA.
# 2001. 'Umbala: a Polemic Against Jargon Addiction in Modern Science', Proceedings of the 22nd annual International Meeting of the Alternative Natural Philosophy Association Ed. Arleta Griffor, publ by ANPA.
# Osborne , A. D. and Pope, N. V., 'An Angular Momentum Synthesis of "Gravitational" and "Electrostatic" Forces', Galilean Electrodynamics, Vol. 14, Special Issue 1, Spring 2003, pp. 9-19.
# 2008, A Critical Perspective on Modern Physics: a talk delivered at the PIRT Conference, Imperial College, London, UK Sept. 2008. 'NASA's Need of New Physics'.

==Books==

* 1999 Instantaneous Action At A Distance in Modern Physics, Pro and Contra, Eds.: Andrew E Chubykalo, Viv Pope and Roman Smirnov-Rueda, Nova Science NY, USA.
* 2005, Immediate Distant Action and Correlation in Modern Physics: Eds. N. Vivian Pope, Andrew E. Chubykalo and Alan F. T. Winfield, Edwin Mellen Press, Lewiston, NY, USA.
* 2007, Light-Speed, Gravitation and Quantum Instantaneity, Anthony D. Osborne and N. Vivian Pope, phi Philosophical Enterprises, Swansea, UK. ISBN 0-9503790-6-9.
* 2010 Wondering in the Wilderness, A. M. and N. V. Pope, phi, Swansea, ISBN 978-0-9505790-7-4.
* 2010 God's Country, N. Vivian Pope, phi, Swansea, ISBN 978-0-9503790-8-5
* 2011 A Critical Review of Contemporary Physics and Cosmology, Pope and Osborne, (to appear).
* 2015 Einstein's Lost Legacy: A Critical Review of Contemporary Physics and Cosmology, N. V. Pope and A D Osborne

==Abstracts==

* 2011 - "[[Extraordinary Physics, or Is Modern Theoretical Physics Just a Teetering 'House of Cards'?
]]" ([http://www.naturalphilosophy.org/pdf/abstracts/abstracts_6180.pdf Read in full])
* 2009 - "[[Extraordinary Physics, or Is Modern Theoretical Physics Just a Teetering 'House of Cards'?]]" ([http://www.naturalphilosophy.org/pdf/abstracts/abstracts_2785.pdf Read in full])
* 2009 - "[[NASA's Missing Spin: The Pioneer and Missing Mass Anomalies]]" ([http://www.naturalphilosophy.org/pdf/abstracts/abstracts_1852.pdf Read in full])
* 2008 - "[[A Critique of Modern Physics]]" ([http://www.naturalphilosophy.org/pdf/abstracts/abstracts_3061.pdf Read in full])
* 2008 - "[[A Neo-Phenomenalist Alternative to Special Relativity Theory]]"
* 2008 - "[[Orbital Time Dilation]]"
* 2008 - "[[The Pioneer Anomaly or a ?Dissident' Perspective on Modern Physics]]" ([http://www.physicsfoundations.org/PIRT_XI/papers/POPE%20ABSTRACT%202008.doc Read in full])
* 2006 - "[[Breaking the Light Barrier to Scientific Progress]]" ([http://www.physicsfoundations.org/PIRT_X/papers/POPE%20PAPER%202006.pdf Read in full])
* 2004 - "[[From Light in Space to Space in Light, the Complete Relativistic Revolution]]" ([http://www.naturalphilosophy.org/pdf/abstracts/abstracts_811.pdf Read in full])
* 2004 - "[[The Logical Redundancy of Einstein?s Second Postulate]]"
* 2003 - "[[An Angular Momentum Synthesis of ?Gravitational? and ?Electrostatic? Forces]]"
* 2000 - "[[The Angular Momentum Aether]]"
* 2000 - "[[An Angular Momentum Synthesis of Gravitational and Electrostatic Forces]]"
* 1999 - "[[The Complete Physics Heresy]]"
* 1999 - "[[Newton is Dead, Long Live Newton]]"
* 1997 - "[[A Quantum-Digital Theory of Light]]"
* 1986 - "[[Is Relativity Quantized?]]"

==Books==

* 2008 - "[[Light Speed, Gravitation and Quantum Instantaneity]]" ([http://www.amazon.co.uk/Light-Speed-Gravitation-Quantum-instantaneity/dp/0950379069 Read in full])
* 2005 - "[[Immediate Distant Action and Correlation in Modern Physics: The Balanced Universe]]" ([http://www.amazon.com/Immediate-Distant-Action-Correlation-Physics/dp/0773460640/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1215901100&sr=1-1 Read in full])
* 2004 - "[[The Eye of the Beholder: The Role of the Observer in Modern Physics]]" ([http://www.gwales.com/bibliographic/?isbn=0950379050 Read in full])
* 1999 - "[[Instantaneous Action at a Distance in Modern Physics: Pro and Contra]]" ([http://www.amazon.com/Instantaneous-Action-Distance-Modern-Physics/dp/1560726989/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1215902541&sr=1-1 Read in full])
* 1981 - "[[Relativising Relativity]]" ([http://www.amazon.com/Relativising-Relativity-N-Vivian-Pope/dp/0950379034/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1216315170&sr=8-1 Read in full])
* 1975 - "[[Philosophy: An Outline of the Discipline and its Sub-Disciplines]]" ([http://www.amazon.com/Philosophy-outline-discipline-its-sub-disciplines/dp/0950379018/ref=sr_11_1?ie=UTF8&qid=1218214506&sr=11-1 Read in full])

[[Category:Scientist|Pope Neville]]

Halton Arp

2020-08-02T21:44:07Z

CriticalT: Changed FORMATTING of Death Date and age

{{Use mdy dates|date=December 2013}}
{{Infobox scientist
|name = Halton Arp
|image =Halton-arp-adjusted.jpg
|image_size =150px
|caption = ''Halton Arp'' in London, October 2000
|birth_date = {{Birth date|1927|3|21}}
|birth_place = New York City, United States
|death_date = {{Death date|2013|12|28}} age 88
|death_place = [[Munich]], Germany
|residence = Germany
|citizenship =
|nationality = American
|ethnicity =
|field = [[Astronomy]]
|work_institutions = [[Palomar Observatory]] [[Max Planck Institute for Astrophysics]]
|alma_mater = [[California Institute of Technology]]
|doctoral_advisor = [[Walter Baade]]
|doctoral_students = [[Susan Kayser]]
|known_for = [[Intrinsic redshift]] [[Atlas of Peculiar Galaxies]]
|author_abbrev_bot =
|author_abbrev_zoo =
|influences =
|influenced =
|prizes = [[Newcomb Cleveland Prize]] {{small|(1960)}} [[Helen B. Warner Prize for Astronomy]] {{small|(1960)}}
|religion =
|footnotes =
|signature =
}}
'''Halton Christian "Chip" Arp''' (March 21, 1927 – December 28, 2013) was an American [[astronomer]]. He was known for his 1966 ''[[Atlas of Peculiar Galaxies]]'', which (it was later realized) catalogues many examples of [[interacting galaxies|interacting and merging galaxies]]. Arp was also known as a critic of the [[Big Bang|Big Bang theory]] and for advocating a [[non-standard cosmology]] incorporating [[intrinsic redshift]].

==Biography==
[[File:Arp&grandsons.2008.JPG|thumb|left|Halton Arp (right) and his grandsons, 2008]]

Arp was born on March 21, 1927, in New York City. He was married three times, has four daughters and five grandchildren.<ref>Alissa J. Arp and [[Andrice Arp]], daughters</ref><ref name="Overbye2014">{{cite news |last=Overbye |first=Dennis |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2014/01/07/science/space/halton-c-arp-astronomer-who-challenged-big-bang-theory-dies-at-86.html |title=Halton C. Arp, Astronomer, Dies at 86; Sought to Challenge Big Bang Theory |newspaper=[[The New York Times]] |date=6 January 2014}}</ref> His [[bachelor's degree]] was awarded by [[Harvard College|Harvard]] (1949), and his PhD by [[California Institute of Technology|Caltech]] (1953). Afterward he became a Fellow of the [[Carnegie Institution of Washington]] in 1953, performing research at the [[Mount Wilson Observatory]] and [[Palomar Observatory]]. Arp became a Research Assistant at [[Indiana University Bloomington|Indiana University]] in 1955, and then in 1957 became a staff member at [[Palomar Observatory]], where he worked for 29 years. In 1983 he joined the staff of the [[Max Planck Institute for Astrophysics]] in Germany. He died in Munich, Germany on December 28, 2013.<ref name=Overbye2014 /> He was an atheist.<ref>http://www.create.ab.ca/epitaph-for-a-maverick-astronomer/. (n.d.)."Halton Arp, the atheist Steady State astronomer, has died"</ref>

==The Atlas of Peculiar Galaxies==
[[File:Potw1504a.tif|thumb|[[Arp 230]], also known as IC 51, observed by the [[NASA]]/[[ESA]] [[Hubble Space Telescope]].<ref>{{cite web|title=The polar ring of Arp 230|url=http://www.spacetelescope.org/images/potw1504a/|accessdate=25 June 2015}}</ref>]]
Arp compiled a catalog of unusual galaxies titled ''[[Atlas of Peculiar Galaxies]]'', which was first published in 1966.<ref name="arp1966">{{cite journal
| author=H. Arp
| title=Atlas of Peculiar Galaxies
| journal=Astrophysical Journal Supplement
| date=1966
| volume=14
| pages=1–20
| bibcode=1966ApJS...14....1A | doi=10.1086/190147
}}</ref> Arp realized that astronomers understood little about how galaxies change over time, which led him to work on this project. This atlas was intended to provide images that would give astronomers data from which they could study the evolution of galaxies. Arp later used the atlas as evidence in his debate on [[Quasar|quasi-stellar objects]] (QSOs).

Based on its citation by other astronomers, Arp's atlas is recognized now as an excellent compilation of [[interacting galaxies|interacting and merging galaxies]]. Many objects in the atlas are referred to primarily by their Arp number. Many of these objects (particularly [[Arp 220]]) are also used as spectral templates for studying high-redshift galaxies.

==Quasars and redshifts==

===Characterizing quasars===
During the 1950s bright radio sources, now known as [[quasar]]s, had been discovered that did not appear to have an optical counterpart. In 1960 one of these sources, [[3C 48]], was found to be associated with what appeared to be a small blue star. When the [[spectrum]] of the star was measured, it contained unidentifiable [[spectral line]]s that defied all attempts at explanation; [[John Gatenby Bolton]]'s suggestion that these were highly [[redshifted]] sources was not widely accepted.

In 1963 [[Maarten Schmidt]] found a visible companion to the quasar [[3C 273]]. Using the [[Hale telescope]], Schmidt found the same odd spectra, but was able to demonstrate that it could be explained as the spectrum of hydrogen, shifted by a very large 15.8% If this was due to the physical motion of the "star", it would represent a speed of 47,000 km/s, far beyond the speed of any known star and defying an obvious explanation. Nor would this explain the huge radio emissions that had led to its original detection.

Schmidt noted that redshift is also associated with the expansion of the universe, as codified in [[Hubble's law]]. If the measured redshift was due to expansion, then the object in question would have to be very far away. In that case, it would have to have an extraordinarily high [[luminosity]], equally beyond any object seen to date. This extreme luminosity would also explain the large radio signal. Schmidt concluded quasars are very distant, very luminous objects.<ref name="schmidt1963">{{cite journal
| author= Maarten Schmidt
| title=3C 273: a star-like object with large red-shift
| journal=Nature
| date=1963
| volume=197
| issue= 4872
| pages=1040–1040
| bibcode=1963Natur.197.1040S | doi=10.1038/1971040a0
}}</ref>

Schmidt's explanation for the high redshift was not universally accepted at the time. Another explanation that was offered was that it was [[gravitational redshift]] that was being measured; this would require a massive object that would also explain the high luminosities. A star large enough to produce the measured redshift would be well beyond the [[Hayashi limit]]. Several other mechanisms were proposed as well, each with their own problems.

===Arp's suggestion===
In 1966, Arp published the ''Atlas of Peculiar Galaxies'', which contained photographs of 338 nearby galaxies that did not fall into any of the classic categories of galaxy shapes. His goal was to produce a selection that modellers could use in order to test theories of galactic formation. By testing against the collection, one could quickly see how well a particular theory stood up.

One group of these, numbers 1 through 101, were otherwise conventional galaxies that appeared to have small companion objects of unknown origin. In 1967 Arp noted that several of these objects appeared on the list of quasars. In some photographs a quasar is in the foreground of known galaxies, and in others there appeared to be matter bridging the two objects, implying they are very close in space. If they are, and the redshifts were due to Hubble expansion, then both objects should have similar redshifts. The galaxies had much smaller redshifts than the quasars. Arp argued that the redshift was not due to Hubble expansion or physical movement of the objects, but must have a non-[[cosmological]] or "[[intrinsic redshift|intrinsic]]" origin.

Arp also noted that quasars were not evenly spread over the sky, but tended to be more commonly found in positions of small angular separation from certain galaxies. This being the case, they might be in some way related to the galaxies. Arp's [[hypothesis]] is that quasars are local objects ejected from the core of [[Active galaxy|active galactic nuclei]] (AGN). Nearby galaxies with both strong radio emission and peculiar [[Morphology (astronomy)|morphologies]], particularly [[Messier 87|M87]] and [[Centaurus A]], appeared to support Arp's hypothesis.<ref name="arp1967">{{cite journal
| author=H. Arp
| title=Peculiar Galaxies and Radio Sources
| journal=Astrophysical Journal
| date=1967
| volume=148
| pages=321–366
| bibcode=1967ApJ...148..321A | doi=10.1086/149159
}}</ref>

In his books, Arp has provided his reasons for believing that the [[Big Bang]] theory is wrong, citing his research into quasars or [[quasar|quasi-stellar objects]] (QSOs). Instead, Arp supported the [[redshift quantization]] theory as an explanation of the redshifts of galaxies.<ref>Arp, Halton, "[http://adsabs.harvard.edu/cgi-bin/nph-bib_query?bibcode=1987JApA....8..241A&db_key=AST&data_type=HTML&format=&high=4521318e0202978 Additional members of the Local Group of galaxies and quantized redshifts within the two nearest groups]" (1987) ''Journal of Astrophysics and Astronomy'' (ISSN 0250-6335), vol. 8, Sept. 1987, p. 241-255.</ref>

===Critics===
Arp originally proposed his theories in the 1960s; [[telescope]]s and astronomical instrumentation have advanced greatly since then: the [[Hubble Space Telescope]] was launched, multiple 8-10 meter [[telescopes]] (such as those at [[Keck Observatory]] and the [[Very Large Telescope]]) have become operational, and detectors such as [[charge-coupled device|CCD]]s are now more widely employed. These new telescopes and new instrumentation have been used to examine QSOs further. QSOs are now generally accepted to be very distant galaxies with high redshifts. Many imaging surveys, most notably the [[Hubble Deep Field]], have found many high-redshift objects that are not QSOs but that appear to be normal galaxies like those found nearby.<ref name="driveretal1998">{{cite journal
|author1=S. P. Driver |author2=A. Fernandez-Soto |author3=W. J. Couch |author4=S. C. Odewahn |author5=R. A. Windhorst |author6=S. Phillips |author7=K. Lanzetta |author8=A. Yahil | title=Morphological Number Counts and Redshift Distributions to I<26 from the Hubble Deep Field: Implications for the Evolution of Ellipticals, Spirals, and Irregulars |journal=Astrophysical Journal |date=1998 |volume=496 |issue=2 |pages=L93–L96 |bibcode=1998ApJ...496L..93D |doi=10.1086/311257|arxiv = astro-ph/9802092 }}</ref> The [[spectrum|spectra]] of the high-redshift galaxies, as seen from [[X-ray]] to radio wavelengths, match the spectra of nearby galaxies (particularly galaxies with high levels of [[star formation]] activity but also galaxies with normal or extinguished star formation activity) when corrected for redshift effects.<ref name="CouchEllis1983">{{cite journal |last1=Couch |first1=W. J. |last2=Ellis |first2=R. S. |last3=Godwin |first3=J. |last4=Carter |first4=D. |title=Spectral energy distributions for galaxies in high redshift clusters - I. Methods and application to three clusters with 0.22 z 0.31 |journal=Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society |volume=205 |issue=4 |year=1983 |pages=1287–1312 |issn=0035-8711 |doi=10.1093/mnras/205.4.1287 |bibcode=1983MNRAS.205.1287C}}</ref><ref name="postmanetal1998">{{cite journal |author=Postman, L. M. Lubin, J. B. Oke |title=A Study of Nine High-Redshift Clusters of Galaxies. II. Photometry, Spectra, and Ages of Clusters 0023+0423 and 1604+4304 |journal=Astronomical Journal |date=1998 |volume=116 |issue=2 |pages=560–583 |bibcode=1998AJ....116..560P|doi=10.1086/300463
|arxiv = astro-ph/9805155 }}</ref><ref name="priddeymcmahon2001">{{cite journal |author1=R. S. Priddey |author2=R. G. McMahon |title=The far-infrared-submillimetre spectral energy distribution of high-redshift quasars |journal=Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society |date=2001 |volume=324 |issue=1 |pages=L17–L22 |bibcode=2001MNRAS.324L..17P |doi=10.1046/j.1365-8711.2001.04548.x |arxiv = astro-ph/0102116 }}</ref> As more recent experiments have expanded the amount of collected data by orders of magnitude Arp's theories can now be scrutinized further. For instance a recent study about the periodicity of redshifts (a hypothesis articulated by Arp) stated that:

:"... the publicly available data from the [[Sloan Digital Sky Survey]] and 2dF QSO redshift survey to test the hypothesis that QSOs are ejected from active galaxies with periodic noncosmological redshifts. For two different [[intrinsic redshift]] models, [...] and find there is no evidence for a periodicity at the predicted frequency in log(1+z), or at any other frequency."<ref name=Tang >Tang, Su Min; Zhang, Shuang Nan, "[http://adsabs.harvard.edu/cgi-bin/nph-bib_query?bibcode=2005ApJ...633...41T&db_key=AST&data_type=HTML&format=&high=42ca922c9c10466 Critical Examinations of QSO Redshift Periodicities and Associations with Galaxies in Sloan Digital Sky Survey Data]", in ''The Astrophysical Journal'', Volume 633, Issue 1, pp. 41-51 (2005) [https://arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/0506366 arXiv e-print]</ref>
However, a follow-up study by Bell and McDiarmid<ref name=bellmcd /> shows that Arp's hypothesis about the periodicity in red-shifts cannot be discarded easily. The authors argue (as response to Tang and Zhang (2005) from which the preceding excerpt is taken) that
:"The Tang and Zhang (2005) analysis could thus have missed, or misidentified, many of the parent galaxies, which could explain why the pairs they found differed little from what would be expected for a random distribution. In spite of this, although it was not pointed out by these authors, their pairs did show a slight excess near the expected value of 200 kpc….In fact, most of the conclusions reached by Tang and Zhang (2005) appear to have resulted because they have assumed that many of the values [that they have used] are much more accurate than they really are. …[we found by examining 46400 quasars from Sloan Digital Sky Survey that] the locations of the peaks in the redshift distribution are in agreement with the preferred redshifts predicted by the intrinsic redshift equation"<ref name=bellmcd>{{Cite journal|author1=Bell, M.B. |author2=McDiarmid D.|date=2006|title=Six Peaks Visible in the Redshift Distribution of 46400 SDSS Quasars Agree with the Preferred Redshifts Predicted by the Decreasing Intrinsic Redshift Model|url=http://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1086/503792/fulltext/|journal=The Astrophysical Journal|doi=10.1086/503792|pmid=|access-date=4 June 2016|volume=648|pages=140–147|arxiv = astro-ph/0603169 |bibcode = 2006ApJ...648..140B }}</ref>

Arp did not waver from his stand against the [[Big Bang]], and until shortly before his death continued to publish articles<ref>[http://www.haltonarp.com/articles H.C. Arp official website:articles]</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Fulton|first=C.C.|author2=H.C. Arp|title=The 2dF Redshift Survey. I. Physical Association and Periodicity in Quasar Families|journal=ApJ|date=July 18, 2012|volume=754|issue=2|page=134|doi=10.1088/0004-637X/754/2/134|url=http://iopscience.iop.org/0004-637X/754/2/134/|bibcode = 2012ApJ...754..134F }}</ref> stating his contrary view in both popular and scientific literature, frequently collaborating with [[Geoffrey Burbidge]] (until his death in 2010) and [[Margaret Burbidge]].<ref name="adsabstracts">{{cite web |title=Smithsonian/NASA ADS Custom Query Form |work=Results for "Arp, H" |url=http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abstract_service.html |accessdate=September 3, 2006 }}</ref>

==Honors and awards==
In 1960, Arp was awarded the [[Helen B. Warner Prize for Astronomy]] by the [[American Astronomical Society]], a prize "normally awarded annually for a significant contribution to observational or theoretical astronomy during the five years preceding the award."<ref>[http://www.aas.org/grants/awards.html Helen B. Warner Prize for Astronomy] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070404093144/http://www.aas.org/grants/awards.html |date=April 4, 2007 }}</ref>

In the same year, Arp was awarded the [[Newcomb Cleveland Prize]] for his address, "The Stellar Content of Galaxies", read before a joint session of the American Astronomical Society and AAAS Section D.<ref>About the AAAS: [http://archives.aaas.org/people.php?p_id=453 History & Archives]</ref>

In 1984, he was awarded the [[The Humboldt Prize|Alexander von Humboldt Senior Scientist Award]].<ref>Juan Miguel Campanario and Brian Martin, "[http://www.uow.edu.au/arts/sts/bmartin/pubs/04jse.html Challenging dominant physics paradigms]" (2004) ''Journal of Scientific Exploration'', vol. 18, no. 3, Fall 2004, pp. 421-438.</ref>

==Books by Arp==
* ''[[Atlas of Peculiar Galaxies]]'' (1966)
* ''The Redshift Controversy'' (1973, with [[George B. Field]] and [[John N. Bahcall]])
* ''[[Quasars, Redshifts and Controversies]]'' (1987)
* ''Seeing Red: Redshifts, Cosmology and Academic Science'' (1998)
* ''Catalogue of Discordant Redshift Associations'' (2003)

==See also==
* '''[[Physical cosmology|Cosmology]]''' : [[Non-standard cosmology]], [[Intrinsic redshift]]s, [[Redshift quantization]], [[Le Sage's theory of gravitation]]

==References==
{{Reflist|colwidth=25em}}

==Further reading==
* {{cite book |author=Halton Arp |title= Quasars, Redshifts and Controversies |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |url=https://books.google.com/?id=_JYWqe2qMZ0C |date=1989 |isbn=0-521-36314-4}}
* Halton Arp, ''Seeing Red'', Aperion (August 1998) {{ISBN|0-9683689-0-5}}
* Halton Arp, ''Catalogue of Discordant Redshift Associations'', Aperion (September 1, 2003) {{ISBN|0-9683689-9-9}}
* G. Burbidge, E.M. Burbidge, H.C. Arp, W.M. Napier: ''Ultraluminous X-ray Sources, High Redshift QSOs and Active Galaxies.'' [https://arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/0605140 Preprint]
* J. Kanipe, D. Webb ''The Arp Atlas of Peculiar Galaxies, A Chronicle and Observer's Guide'', Willmann-Bell Inc. (2006) {{ISBN|978-0-943396-76-7}}

==External links==
* [http://www.haltonarp.com/ Halton Arp's Website]
* [https://www.aip.org/history-programs/niels-bohr-library/oral-histories/4490 Oral History interview transcript with Halton Arp 29 July 1975, American Institute of Physics, Niels Bohr Library and Archives]
* [http://en.scientificcommons.org/h_arp Publications by Halton C. Arp at the Scientific Commons repository]
* [http://nedwww.ipac.caltech.edu/level5/Arp/frames.html ''Atlas of Peculiar Galaxies'']
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20130828034559/http://iau.org/administration/membership/individual/2982/ Halton Arp directory page at the IAU from 2011]

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Arp, Halton}}
[[Category:20th-century astronomers]]
[[Category:21st-century astronomers]]
[[Category:1927 births]]
[[Category:2013 deaths]]
[[Category:American astronomers]]
[[Category:American atheists]]
[[Category:Harvard University alumni]]
[[Category:California Institute of Technology alumni]]
[[Category:Indiana University people]]
[[Category:20th-century American scientists]]
[[Category:21st-century American scientists]]

Herbert Dingle

2020-08-02T21:32:20Z

CriticalT:

{{Infobox scientist
| name = Herbert Dingle
| image = Herbert Dingle 440.jpg
| alt = Herbert Dingle
| birth_date = {{birth date|1890|08|02|mf=y}}
| death_date = {{birth date|1978|09|04|mf=y}}
| fields = [[Professor Emeritus of Natural Philosophy]]
| residence = London, England
| nationality = English
| known_for = [[Relativity]]
}}

Herbert Dingle was a distinguished scientist and philosopher who was Professor of History and Philosophy of Science at University College, London, from 1946 to 1955. Before that he was Professor of Natural Philosophy at Imperial College, from which he had graduated in 1918. His numerous scientific distinctions included the presidency of the Royal Astronomical Society (1951-53) and of the British Society for the History of Science (1955-57); he wrote several well-known books and an enormous number of scientific papers. The early part of Professor Dingle's scientific career was a period of intense interest in relativity, and he became an expert on the subject. Although an admirer of the theory, he was skeptical about the well-known clock paradox or twin paradox, and did not agree with its generally accepted resolution. After a prominent but inconclusive debate on the paradox, during the 1950s, he became convinced that the special theory, though mathematically impeccable, was physically impossible, and he spent much of his time and energy during the last 20 years of his life trying to persuade the scientific world that the theory was untenable. His criticisms of the theory: and his Socratic ability to ask questions that nobody else could answer, were rejected by mainstream academic physics and alleged to be rebutted. However, Hasok Chang, then of Harvard, did a thorough review of the Dingle debates (Stud. Hist. Phil. Sci. 24(5), 741 (1993)) and concluded that Dingle’s opponents had NOT rebutted his arguments and had NOT even addressed the arguments he raised.

==From Wikipedia==

Dingle was born in London, but spent his early years in Plymouth, where he was taken following the death of his father, and where he attended Plymouth Science, Art and Technical Schools. Due to lack of money, he left school at the age of 14 and found employment as a clerk, a job which he held for 11 years. At age 25 he won a scholarship to the Imperial College, London, from which he graduated in 1918. In that same year, Dingle married Alice Westacott who later gave birth to a son. As a Quaker, Dingle was exempt from military service during World War I. He took a position as a Demonstrator in the Physics Department, and devoted himself to the study of spectroscopy (following his mentor [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfred_Fowler Alfred Fowler]), especially its applications in astronomy. He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Astronomical Society in 1922.

Dingle was a member of the British government eclipse expeditions of 1927 (Colwyn Bay) and 1932 (Montreal), both of which failed to make any observations due to overcast skies. He spent most of 1932 at the California Institute of Technology as a Rockefeller Foundation Scholar. There he met the theoretical cosmologist [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_C._Tolman R. C. Tolman], and studied relativistic cosmology.

Dingle became a professor of [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_Philosophy Natural Philosophy] at Imperial College in 1938, and was a professor of History and Philosophy of Science at [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_College_London University College London] from 1946 until his retirement in 1955. Thereafter he held the customary title of Professor Emeritus from that institution. He was one of the founders of the British Society for the History of Science, and served as President from 1955 to 1957. He founded what later became the British Society for the Philosophy of Science as well as its journal, the British Journal for The Philosophy of Science.

Dingle was the author of "Modern Astrophysics" (1924) and "Practical Applications of Spectrum Analysis" (1950). He also wrote the essay "Relativity for All" (1922) and the monograph The Special Theory of Relativity (1940). A collection of Dingle's lectures on the history and philosophy of science was published in 1954. He also took an interest in English literature, and published Science and Literary Criticism in 1949, and The Mind of Emily Bronte in 1974.

Books:

* Relativity for All, Methuen & Co., Ltd., London, and Little, Brown, and Company, Boston, 1922
* Modern Astrophysics, Collins, London, 1924
* Life and Work of Sir Norman Lockyer (Part Author), Macmillan, London, 1928.
* Science and Human Experience, Williams & Norgate Ltd., London, 1931, and The Macmillan Company, New York, 1932.
* Through Science to Philosophy, Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1937.
* The Special Theory of Relativity, Methuen & Co. Ltd., London, and John Wiley & Sons Inc. New York, 4th Edition, 1961. (1st Edition 1940)
* Mechanical Physics, Nelson, London, 1941.
* Sub-Atomic Physics, Nelson, London, 1942.
* Science and Literary Criticism, Nelson, London, 1949.
* Practical Applications of Spectrum Analysis, Chapman and Hall, London, 1950.
* The Scientific Adventure: Essays in the History and Philosophy of Science, Sir Isaac Pitman & Sons, Ltd., London, 1952.
* The Sources of Eddington's Philosophy, The Eighth Arthur Stanley Eddington Memorial Lecture, Cambridge University Press, 1954.
* A Threefold Cord: Philosophy, Science, Religion, A Discussion Between Viscount Samuel and Professor Herbert Dingle, George Allen & Unwin, Ltd., London, 1961.
* A Century of Science: 1851-1951 (Editor), Hutchinson's Scientific and Technical Publications, London, 1951.
* Science at the Crossroads, Martin Brian & O'Keeffe, London, 1972.
* The Mind of Emily Bront?, Martin Brian & O'Keeffe, London, 1974.

'''Articles:'''

* Proc. Phys. Soc. Lond., V A69, p. 925 (1956).
* "A Re-examination of the Michelson-Morley Experiment," Vistas in Astronomy, V9, pp. 97-100 (1967).

[http://www.archiveshub.ac.uk/news/0311din.html Archives of his work]

==Abstracts==

* 1980 - "[[The Twins Paradox of Special Relativity]]" ([http://www.naturalphilosophy.org/pdf/abstracts/abstracts_215.pdf Read in full])
* 1965 - "[[Note on Mr Keswani's articles, Origin and Concept of Relativity]]"
* 1962 - "[[On Inertial Reference Frames]]" ([http://www.naturalphilosophy.org/pdf/abstracts/abstracts_6382.pdf Read in full])
* 1960 - "[[The Origin and Present Status of the Special Relativity Theory]]" ([http://www.naturalphilosophy.org/pdf/abstracts/abstracts_6381.pdf Read in full])

==Books==

* 1972 - "[[Science at the Crossroads]]" ([http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herbert_Dingle Read in full])
* 1965 - "[[Duration and Simultaneity: With Reference to Einstein?s Theory]]" ([http://www.amazon.com/Duration-Simultaneity-Reference-Einsteins-Theory/dp/B001WQ6VT0/ref=sr_1_3?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1242772411&sr=1-3 Read in full])
* 1961 - "[[A Threefold Cord: Philosophy, Science, Religion: a Discussion Between Vicount Samuel and Professor Herbert Dingle]]" ([http://www.amazon.com/Threefold-Cord-Hernert-Dingle/dp/B000ZN9TC2/ref=sr_1_2?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1219075391&sr=1-2 Read in full])
* 1940/1955/1959/1961 - "[[The Special Theory of Relativity (Methuens Monographs on Physical Subjects)]]" ([http://www.amazon.com/SPECIAL-RELATIVITY-MONOGRAPHS-PHYSICAL-SUBJECTS/dp/B0000CKZE9/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1219074051&sr=8-1 Read in full])
* 1922 - "[[Relativity for All]]" ([http://www.amazon.com/Relativity-All-Herbert-Dingle/dp/0548692823/ref=ed_oe_p Read in full])

[[Category:Scientist|Dingle Herbert]]

Herbert Dingle

2020-08-02T21:30:44Z

CriticalT: Minor changes plus edited and added to the last sentence before the "From Wikipedia" section

{{Infobox scientist
| name = Herbert Dingle
| image = Herbert Dingle 440.jpg
| alt = Herbert Dingle
| birth_date = {{birth date|1890|08|02|mf=y}}
| death_date = {{birth date|1978|09|04|mf=y}}
| fields = [[Professor Emeritus of Natural Philosophy]]
| residence = London, England
| nationality = English
| known_for = [[Relativity]]
}}

Herbert Dingle was a distinguished scientist and philosopher who was Professor of History and Philosophy of Science at University College, London, from 1946 to 1955. Before that he was Professor of Natural Philosophy at Imperial College, from which he had graduated in 1918. His numerous scientific distinctions included the presidency of the Royal Astronomical Society (1951-53) and of the British Society for the History of Science (1955-57); he wrote several well-known books and an enormous number of scientific papers. The early part of Professor Dingle's scientific career was a period of intense interest in relativity, and he became an expert on the subject. Although an admirer of the theory, he was skeptical about the well-known clock paradox or twin paradox, and did not agree with its generally accepted resolution. After a prominent but inconclusive debate on the paradox, during the 1950s, he became convinced that the special theory, though mathematically impeccable, was physically impossible, and he spent much of his time and energy during the last 20 years of his life trying to persuade the scientific world that the theory was untenable. His criticisms of the theory: and his Socratic ability to ask questions that nobody else could answer, were rejected by mainstream academic physics and alleged to be rebutted. However, Hasok Chang, then of Harvard, did a thorough review of the Dingle debates (Stud. Hist. Phil. Sci. 24(5), 741 (1993)) and concluded that Dingle’s opponents had NOT rebutted his arguments but had NOT even addressed the arguments he raised.

==From Wikipedia==

Dingle was born in London, but spent his early years in Plymouth, where he was taken following the death of his father, and where he attended Plymouth Science, Art and Technical Schools. Due to lack of money, he left school at the age of 14 and found employment as a clerk, a job which he held for 11 years. At age 25 he won a scholarship to the Imperial College, London, from which he graduated in 1918. In that same year, Dingle married Alice Westacott who later gave birth to a son. As a Quaker, Dingle was exempt from military service during World War I. He took a position as a Demonstrator in the Physics Department, and devoted himself to the study of spectroscopy (following his mentor [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfred_Fowler Alfred Fowler]), especially its applications in astronomy. He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Astronomical Society in 1922.

Dingle was a member of the British government eclipse expeditions of 1927 (Colwyn Bay) and 1932 (Montreal), both of which failed to make any observations due to overcast skies. He spent most of 1932 at the California Institute of Technology as a Rockefeller Foundation Scholar. There he met the theoretical cosmologist [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_C._Tolman R. C. Tolman], and studied relativistic cosmology.

Dingle became a professor of [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_Philosophy Natural Philosophy] at Imperial College in 1938, and was a professor of History and Philosophy of Science at [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_College_London University College London] from 1946 until his retirement in 1955. Thereafter he held the customary title of Professor Emeritus from that institution. He was one of the founders of the British Society for the History of Science, and served as President from 1955 to 1957. He founded what later became the British Society for the Philosophy of Science as well as its journal, the British Journal for The Philosophy of Science.

Dingle was the author of "Modern Astrophysics" (1924) and "Practical Applications of Spectrum Analysis" (1950). He also wrote the essay "Relativity for All" (1922) and the monograph The Special Theory of Relativity (1940). A collection of Dingle's lectures on the history and philosophy of science was published in 1954. He also took an interest in English literature, and published Science and Literary Criticism in 1949, and The Mind of Emily Bronte in 1974.

Books:

* Relativity for All, Methuen & Co., Ltd., London, and Little, Brown, and Company, Boston, 1922
* Modern Astrophysics, Collins, London, 1924
* Life and Work of Sir Norman Lockyer (Part Author), Macmillan, London, 1928.
* Science and Human Experience, Williams & Norgate Ltd., London, 1931, and The Macmillan Company, New York, 1932.
* Through Science to Philosophy, Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1937.
* The Special Theory of Relativity, Methuen & Co. Ltd., London, and John Wiley & Sons Inc. New York, 4th Edition, 1961. (1st Edition 1940)
* Mechanical Physics, Nelson, London, 1941.
* Sub-Atomic Physics, Nelson, London, 1942.
* Science and Literary Criticism, Nelson, London, 1949.
* Practical Applications of Spectrum Analysis, Chapman and Hall, London, 1950.
* The Scientific Adventure: Essays in the History and Philosophy of Science, Sir Isaac Pitman & Sons, Ltd., London, 1952.
* The Sources of Eddington's Philosophy, The Eighth Arthur Stanley Eddington Memorial Lecture, Cambridge University Press, 1954.
* A Threefold Cord: Philosophy, Science, Religion, A Discussion Between Viscount Samuel and Professor Herbert Dingle, George Allen & Unwin, Ltd., London, 1961.
* A Century of Science: 1851-1951 (Editor), Hutchinson's Scientific and Technical Publications, London, 1951.
* Science at the Crossroads, Martin Brian & O'Keeffe, London, 1972.
* The Mind of Emily Bront?, Martin Brian & O'Keeffe, London, 1974.

'''Articles:'''

* Proc. Phys. Soc. Lond., V A69, p. 925 (1956).
* "A Re-examination of the Michelson-Morley Experiment," Vistas in Astronomy, V9, pp. 97-100 (1967).

[http://www.archiveshub.ac.uk/news/0311din.html Archives of his work]

==Abstracts==

* 1980 - "[[The Twins Paradox of Special Relativity]]" ([http://www.naturalphilosophy.org/pdf/abstracts/abstracts_215.pdf Read in full])
* 1965 - "[[Note on Mr Keswani's articles, Origin and Concept of Relativity]]"
* 1962 - "[[On Inertial Reference Frames]]" ([http://www.naturalphilosophy.org/pdf/abstracts/abstracts_6382.pdf Read in full])
* 1960 - "[[The Origin and Present Status of the Special Relativity Theory]]" ([http://www.naturalphilosophy.org/pdf/abstracts/abstracts_6381.pdf Read in full])

==Books==

* 1972 - "[[Science at the Crossroads]]" ([http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herbert_Dingle Read in full])
* 1965 - "[[Duration and Simultaneity: With Reference to Einstein?s Theory]]" ([http://www.amazon.com/Duration-Simultaneity-Reference-Einsteins-Theory/dp/B001WQ6VT0/ref=sr_1_3?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1242772411&sr=1-3 Read in full])
* 1961 - "[[A Threefold Cord: Philosophy, Science, Religion: a Discussion Between Vicount Samuel and Professor Herbert Dingle]]" ([http://www.amazon.com/Threefold-Cord-Hernert-Dingle/dp/B000ZN9TC2/ref=sr_1_2?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1219075391&sr=1-2 Read in full])
* 1940/1955/1959/1961 - "[[The Special Theory of Relativity (Methuens Monographs on Physical Subjects)]]" ([http://www.amazon.com/SPECIAL-RELATIVITY-MONOGRAPHS-PHYSICAL-SUBJECTS/dp/B0000CKZE9/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1219074051&sr=8-1 Read in full])
* 1922 - "[[Relativity for All]]" ([http://www.amazon.com/Relativity-All-Herbert-Dingle/dp/0548692823/ref=ed_oe_p Read in full])

[[Category:Scientist|Dingle Herbert]]

Glen C Collins

2020-06-18T22:20:51Z

CriticalT: Change commonsensescience.org citations to commonsensescience.net

{{Infobox scientist
| name = Glen C. Collins
| image = Glen C Collins 89.jpg
| alt = Glen C. Collins
| fields = [[Systems Engineering Consultant]]
| residence = Blairsville, GA, United States
| nationality = USA
| known_for = [[Atomic Structure]], [[Toroidal Ring]]
}}

Dr. Glen C. Collins, P.E. earned his doctorate in Artificial Intelligence and Software Engineering from Vanderbilt University after earning degrees from Georgia Institute of Technology in Electrical Engineering.  He served as Assistant Professor at the US Naval Academy following teaching duties at Vanderbilt and Georgia Tech, and supported AI and supercomputing research efforts for the Naval Research Laboratory and Naval Intelligence Community.  He has extensive experience in corporate and program management, and the development of large computer and communications networks.  He presents Common Sense Science at international conferences and seminars.

==Abstracts==

* 2002 - "[[Physical Models for Sub-Atomic Particles and Atomic Structure]]" ([http://www.commonsensescience.net/pdf/articles/physical_models_for_sub-atomic.pdf Read in full])
* 1998 - "[[Fundamental Force Laws and Models of Matter Compared and
Validated]]"

==Books==

* 2002 - "[[Science and Rationalism: Correspondence of Scientists and Philosophers Seeking Truth and Searching for Reality in the Ideas of Plato, the Bible, and Advanced Science]]" ([http://www.commonsensescience.net Read in full])

[[Category:Scientist|Collins Glen]]

Charles William Lucas

2020-06-18T22:09:40Z

CriticalT: Updating citations with commonsensescience.org chnagring to commonsensescience.net

{{Infobox scientist
| name = Charles William Lucas
| image = Charles William Lucas 142.jpg
| alt = Charles William Lucas
| birth_date = {{birth date|1942|03|21|mf=y}}
| fields = [[Physicist]]
| residence = Mechanicsville, MD, United States
| nationality = USA
| known_for = [[Universal Electrodynamic Force]], [[Nuclear Structure]], [[Atomic Structure]], [[Elementary Particle Structure]], [[Molecular Structure]], [[Force of Gravity]], [[Force of Inertia]], [[Origin of Life at Molecular Level]], [[Unificat]]
}}

Dr. Charles William Lucas is an [[American]] physicist, author, and inventor who is best known for unifying the four forces of physics with his [[universal force equation]] and unifying a more perfect union of the axiomatic and empirical scientific methods. Lucas was ousted from mainstream physics after his criticism of Einstein's theories and he continued his own work on unifying the forces through organizations such as [[Common Sense Science]] (which he is one of the founders), and the [[Natural Philosophy Alliance]] and later the [[John Chappell Natural Philosophy Society]].

==Education==
Lucas' education was highly focused on science from his early childhood.

===Early Years===

Dr. Charles Lucas began his scientific career while in 9th grade when he was taking biology at Fairfax High School in Fairfax, VA. For his biology science project, he made a leaf collection and discovered that leaves are arranged on a branch of a tree in patterns of 1 or 3 or 5 or 7 or 11 or 13, etc. The number of lobes in a leaf of a tree follows the same pattern. The number of veins in a leaf lobe also follows the same pattern which the ancient Greeks defined as chiral symmetry.

That same year Dr. Lucas helped his father build the new family house in Vienna, Virginia. Using the leftover glass window panes from the windows he constructed a large electrical capacitor consisting of a stack of window panes with tin foil in between each pane and connected on one side. Using leftover wires he created a large coil on a cardboard tube. From a neon sign company he obtained a used high voltage transformer. With these things he was able to construct a Tesla Coil with visible lightning going out about 20 feet. Putting this Tesla Coil behind a cinderblock wall in the basement and turning it on, he walked into another room on the other side of the wall and picked up a long fluorescent light bulb and entertained his family with how he could light up the bulb by just touching it with no wires.
During his senior year of high school Dr. Lucas was selected as a Virginia State Merit Scholar for graduating 2nd in his class. He was a National Merit Scholar as determined by the National Merit examinations.

During his senior year of high school he also learned of a competitive examination physics scholarship at the College of William and Mary in Williamsburg, VA. Through a friend’s older brother who had taken the scholarship exam years earlier he learned that the exam appeared to consist of physics problems from all the undergraduate physics courses final exams. Borrowing copies of the final exams from this older student, he studied all of these undergraduate physics courses and learned to solve the exam type problems. When he took the scholarship exam that year, he won it and got the highest score of any previous contestant.

===Undergraduate===

Later that year the National Science Foundation (NSF), in an attempt to catch up with the Russians in the space race, set up a program to create an elite group of scientists in the United States. They invited the best high school physics student in each state to a much accelerated program where they were given the best possible undergraduate education in science and math in 3 months by the best college teachers in the United States. Dr. Lucas was selected to represent the state of Virginia. He went to the campus of Emory and Henry College in Emory, VA with 49 other students from the 49 other states and was taught undergraduate physics and math by the best professors at Cal Tech, Stanford, Harvard, MIT, etc. He was one of the two best students in the program that summer.

At the end of the summer Dr. Lucas went to the College of William and Mary in Williamsburg, VA. When he went to registration for the first semester he asked for advanced placement to the senior level in physics. The Physics Department had never had such an advanced student and did not know what to do. Finally they decided that he should try teaching each of the subjects he was skipping to make sure that he understood the subject. He did that and was paid for teaching. He was also paid to tutor the college football team players in physics, math and economics that year.

At the end of his freshman year, Dr. Lucas applied to NSF for a research grant to build a microwave antenna and polarimeter in order to study the cosmic background radiation of the universe. He received the research grant that was normally awarded only to Ph.D. scientists due to his participation in the NSF program for gifted and talented students starting his sophomore year. He built from scratch the first microwave polarimeter and used it in conjunction with a NASA microwave antenna owned by the Plasma Physics Laboratory at the College of William and Mary. The results of his research were published in the Virginia Academy of Science journal and presented at the annual meeting in 1963 for which he graduated with honors in physics. Two years later some of his cosmic microwave experiments were repeated by two researchers at Princeton University for which they received a Nobel Prize.

Upon graduation from the College of William and Mary in 1964 with a B.S. in Physics with Honors, a member of Sigma Pi Sigma Physics Honor Society and a member of Phi Beta Kappa National Honor Society. Dr. Lucas applied to graduate school at the world’s largest physics department located at the University of Maryland under the leadership of Dr. John Toll. That fall Dr. Lucas was one of the 600 new entering graduate students in physics with a Graduate Teaching Assistantship. Because he had 4 years’ experience teaching undergraduate physics courses with good success, he was selected to teach the calculus-based Physics for pre-med students course. This class consisted of 1,000 pre-med students and Dr. Lucas had 17 graduate teaching assistants assisting him to run the labs, recitation sessions and testing center.
This physics course had been a problem course in the previous year when taught by the same professor who also taught the similar calculus-based Physics for Science Majors course. The pre-med students did not do as well on their tests and labs as the science majors. When the professor assigned the pre-med students only Cs, Ds and Fs the Dean of the Faculty complained that none of the pre-med students could go to medical school without getting at least a B in the course, and forced the professor to grade on a curve so that at least 75% of the pre-med students got an A or B. As a result the former teacher of the course refused to continue to teach the Physics for Pre-Med course, because he could not use a lower standard in one course than the other on the same subject matter.

Dr. Lucas initiated a new way of teaching the course. Besides having laboratory and recitation sessions he created a testing center with tests for the 36 chapters in the textbook for the course. The student’s grades in the course were determined by how many chapter tests they passed with a 70% or higher. If a student failed a chapter test, they could take it a second or third time at their convenience at the testing center until they passed. Each time they took the chapter test it was different but similar. Most of the students responded well to the testing procedures and met the standards for an A or B in the course.

The previous professor complained that the pre-med students were still meeting a lower standard, and if they took the same final exam they would all fail. When Dr. Lucas mentioned that in the class toward the end of the year, the pre-med students agreed to take the same final exam as the Physics for Science Majors course but their grade would still be determined by the procedures being used in the testing center. When they took the same final exam as the science majors, they mostly got A’s and B’s using those standards and almost the same identical grade that were going to receive through the testing center procedures. The Dean of the Faculty was so impressed that he awarded Dr. Lucas the faculty of the Year Award with a cash prize of half his regular salary.

All M.S. and Ph.D. candidates in Physics at the University of Maryland were required to get a score of 96 percentile on the Physics Graduate Record exam. Dr. Lucas received a 99 percentile ranking on the Graduate Record exam in physics. During his second year in graduate school he passed the Comprehensive Exam in Physics and the Graduate Record Exams in French and German for his two scientific languages in order to qualify to do a thesis for a M.S. or Ph.D. in physics. Of the 600 entering graduate students each year only about 15 got an M.S. and only about 5 got a Ph.D.

During his second year in graduate school Dr. Lucas began his experimental thesis in solid state physics for measuring the temperature dependence of the saturation magnetization of nickel to 6 significant figures in order to determine which of the three competing techniques for measuring the saturation magnetization of nickel was correct. Previously the temperature dependence of the magnetization of nickel had only been measured to 2-3 significant figures over the temperature range of liquid helium to room temperature. The three different methods used previously did not agree with one another.
Dr. Lucas grew a large pure nickel single crystal. Then he cut the nickel crystal along a specific direction in the crystal lattice in the form of a thin disk. Next he built a microwave cavity and glued the nickel disk to the bottom of the cavity. Then he grew a small DPPH crystal that could be used to measure the saturation magnetization of nickel to high accuracy. With the microwave resonance data from the DPPH crystals he was able to measure the saturation magnetization to 6 significant figures and to show that only one of the previous methods of measuring the saturation magnetization of nickel was reliable to within their claimed experimental precision.

When Dr. Lucas presented and defended his thesis before the defense committee, the members noted that his thesis was one of the best and most significant that they had ever reviewed. The thesis was published as Technical Report No. 696 July 1967 by the Department of Physics and Astronomy.

After receiving his M. S. in Solid State Physics, Dr. Lucas returned to the College of William and Mary to work on his Ph. D. on pionic, kaonic, and muonic atoms. While he had been in graduate school at the University of Maryland, William and Mary had received a grant to create the Space Radiation Effects Laboratory (SREL). The physics department hired about twenty faculty from Carnegie Mellon University and the architects of a similar accelerator facility at CERN that did not work very well when built. Working on a shoestring budget compared to CERN’s budget, they succeeded in building an accelerator with 1,000 times the beam intensity of the CERN accelerator.

===Graduate Work===

Dr. Lucas received the one and only graduate fellowship awarded by the College of William and Mary to study pionic atoms. In his first year back at William and Mary he passed his comprehensive examination in physics plus the language exams in French and German with the highest scores of all other graduate students in physics. For his thesis he participated in many of the experiments at SREL with pionic atoms. Working with Dr. Ray Southworth, the new head of the Computer Science Department at the College of William and Mary, Dr. Lucas developed a new mathematical technique for solving non-linear complex second order differential equations to analyze the pionic atom data. This enabled the pionic atom to be used as a probe to explore the nucleus of atoms and the interaction of pions with the nucleons inside the nucleus. The lowest energy atomic pion shells were inside the nucleus while the lowest energy electron shells were outside the nucleus.

Dr. Lucas received his Ph.D. for his thesis on Pionic Atoms in 1972 from the College of William and Mary. When he applied for postdoctoral positions at various universities, he was accepted at the highest ranking physics Post Doc position in America which was at Catholic University in Washington, DC at that time. There he published many papers on pions and pionic atoms. His presence on the faculty enabled the physics department to get a grant to treat 1000 inoperable brain tumor patients using pion beams. The work was done at the Los Alamos Accelerator Center in Los Alamos, New Mexico. There a beam of pions was created by colliding high energy protons into carbon blocks and using magnets and other techniques to separate the pions from all the other particles created. These pions were formed into a focused beam with just enough energy to get through the skin and scalp of the patient and into the brain tumor where the negative pions replaced electrons in millions of atoms. The pions cascaded down into the atomic shells inside the nucleus and caused the nucleus to split into two very different atoms. X-rays were given off at the position of damage allowing the local doctors to both see the tumors and the keep the beam damage confined to within the tumors. Approximately 990 of the 1000 patients with inoperable brain tumors survived the pion radiation with the damaged inoperable brain tumors being removed by the immune system of the patient’s body.

While at Catholic University Dr. Lucas gave two talks and published two papers in the Bulletin of the American Physical Society in which he showed that the assumptions of Special and General Relativity Theory are known by experiment to be false thereby falsifying these scientific theories. The politically correct scientific community did not like the public revealing of these problems with relativity theory. So the Department of Energy and the National Science Foundation sent a letter to the President of Catholic University demanding that Dr. Lucas be fired immediately. If the university failed to fire Dr. Lucas, all the grants from DOE and NSF would be terminated causing about 27 faculty in the Physics Department to lose their source of income. The University was forced to reluctantly fire Dr. Lucas.
After that Dr. Lucas got a job with the Smithsonian Science Information Exchange (SSIE) where he helped maintain an on-line database of scientific research by the state and federal government plus non-profit corporations. He personally created the descriptions of each research project in the area of physics and determined the key index terms for each research project in physics. While working there Dr. Lucas continued publishing many scientific papers.

While Dr. Lucas was there, he also invented the super-microcomputer for use at the Smithsonian to replace a large IBM mainframe computer and save half of the budget for SSIE. The President of SSIE wanted to keep the expensive IBM mainframe computer, because it was subsidized by the U. S. Congress. So he contracted Dr. Lucas to work in Crystal City, VA for the U.S. Naval Material Command. There he demonstrated the possibilities of using super-microcomputers to replace whole DOD computer centers. The admirals of the Naval Material Command were impressed with the demonstrations of the super-micro and put Dr. Lucas on the DOD ADP Steering Committee.

==Professional Career==

Not long after that the President and vice-President of SSIE had a major disagreement. The vice-President was fired by the President. In retaliation the former Vice-President succeeded in having the Congressional subsidy of SSIE removed. That caused the dissolution of SSIE and caused all the employees to find other employment. At that point a neighbor of Dr. Lucas who was in charge of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric (NOAA) Computer Center at the Federal Center in Maryland hired him to help manage the 500 computer centers in NOAA and to automate the financial management systems at NOAA, NIST, and the Census Bureau. Dr. Lucas replaced many of these computer centers with 1 or 2 super-microcomputers. Previously they had consisted of a large number of mainframe and mini-computers. At the time that the Department of Commerce staff that controlled NOAA who had been supporting the use of super-microcomputers retired. After that the NOAA head of computer centers told Dr. Lucas that if he did not leave NOAA he would be fired, because the government is not in the business of saving money. The practice in NOAA was to allow administrators that approved contracts to run the over 500 computer centers to receive presents or kickbacks from the contractors whose bids that they accepted for running a computer center. The computer centers that used to cost millions of dollars a year to run, cost only $8,000 to set up and put in a closet for years of service. There were no kickbacks given to the administrators when super-microcomputers were used. This save NOAA billions of dollars.

While working at NOAA Dr. Lucas published many scientific papers and spoke before multiple scientific societies in Russia, Ukraine, Germany, Spain, Canada, and the United States. He also derived a universal electro-dynamic force law that describes physical phenomena on all size scales throughout the universe including the force of gravity, the force of inertia, and what he terms "the pulse of life," on the molecular scale and a new paradigm for medicine based on longitudinal radiation. Using the universal force law he refined the Bergman ring model to describe the complete set of elementary particles, their decay schemes, reactions, and excited states by introducing the classical concept of stable elementary particles being composed of primary, secondary and tertiary level three dimensional closed toroidal strings that reflect the chiral symmetry of the universal force. This classical model conserves energy, total number of charge strings, and unique angular momentum configurations of the primary strings in all decays and reactions.

In 1990 Dr. Lucas met [[David Bergman]], and their collaboration led to the founding of [[Common Sense Science]] in 1997. Many of Lucas's most groundbreaking papers were published in CSS's journal, [[Foundations of Science]].

Dr. Lucas is a frequent speaker at science conferences and has been featured in many programs by Cornerstone TV on a syndicated program entitled "Origins." In 2007 he presented a three credit 45 hour college course on creation at the International Baptist Bible College of Ukraine in Russian based on the universal electrodynamic force being identified from the Bible as the divine force. From the universal electrodynamic force alone he was able to describe many aspects of the creation, the mechanism causing Noah's flood, what happened to all the water after the flood, and what caused the division of the continents 101 years later. In 2008 he spoke at VA Tech on "The Expansion of the Earth due to the Decay of Gravity". He has been an invited speaker at the Electric Universe conferences in Las Vegas and the Tesla Society in Albuquerque, NM.

==Personal Life==
Dr. Lucas is married to Alice Pittard Lucas and has three married sons (John, Joseph,and Daniel) and a married daughter Amy. John and Joseph attended Oxen Hill Science and Technology High School. John received a prize from the Westinghouse Science Talent Search and an appointment to the U.S. Air Force Academy. Joseph graduate first in his class at Oxon Hill Science and Technology, received the Grand Prize at the International Science Fair held in Hamilton, Ontario, Canada in 1995, and full scholarships in physics to Cal Tech and Harvard the number 1 and 2 universities in physics in the U. S. Daniel followed his father's work in computers and develops new computer web applications for stock brokerage companies and health companies. Dr. Lucas currently lives in Mechanicsville, Maryland.

==Awards==
* 1961 NASA grant to study the microwave background and it polarization
* 1964 B.S. with Honors in Physics, William and Mary
* 1965 University of Maryland Graduate School Faculty Award
* 2013 Who's Who Professional Physicist of the Year for publication of the book The Universal Force Volume 1 - Derived From A More Perfect Union of the Axiomatic and Empirical Scientific Methods
* 2018 Lifetime Achievement Award from the [[John Chappell Natural Philosophy Society]]

==Abstracts==

* 2016 - "[[The Trouble with Modern Physics and the Solution Based on Logic and Metatheory]]"
* 2013 - "[[The Structure and Symmetry of the Universe]]"
* 2012 - "[[The Need for Reformation in Modern Science Based on Universal Truth, Structuralism and Euclidean Geometry]]" ([http://www.naturalphilosophy.org/pdf/abstracts/abstracts_6540.pdf Read in full])
* 2012 - "[[Symmetry of Nature Confirms Universal Electrodynamic Force]]" ([http://www.naturalphilosophy.org/pdf/abstracts/abstracts_6539.pdf Read in full])
* 2011 - "[[Electrodynamic Origin of Gravitational Forces]]" ([http://www.naturalphilosophy.org/pdf/abstracts/abstracts_5997.pdf Read in full])
* 2011 - "[[New Solar System Force, Decay of Gravity, and Expansion of the Solar System]]" ([http://www.commonsensescience.net/pdf/articles/new_solar_system_force_part_2_fos_v14n1.pdf Read in full])
* 2011 - "[[Union of Euclid?s Axiomatic Method with Newton?s Empirical
Scientific Method Leads to an Improved Electrodynamic Force]]" ([http://www.commonsensescience.net/pdf/articles/improved_axiomatic_version_of_electrodynamics_fos_v14n3.pdf Read in full])
* 2011 - "[[The Universal Electrodynamic Force]]" ([http://www.naturalphilosophy.org/pdf/abstracts/abstracts_5986.pdf Read in full])
* 2010 - "[[Confirmation of New Solar System Force Supports Universal Electrodynamic Force]]" ([http://www.commonsensescience.net/pdf/articles/new_solar_system_force_part_1_fos_v13n4.pdf Read in full])
* 2010 - "[[The Symmetry and Beauty of the Universe]]" ([http://www.commonsensescience.net/pdf/articles/symmetry_and_beauty_of_the_universe_fos_v13n2.pdf Read in full])
* 2009 - "[[Electrodynamic Model of the Nucleus (Letter to the Editor)]]" ([http://www.naturalphilosophy.org/pdf/abstracts/abstracts_5510.pdf Read in full])
* 2009 - "[[The Electrodynamic Origin of the Force of Gravity, Part 2]]" ([http://www.naturalphilosophy.org/pdf/abstracts/abstracts_1586.pdf Read in full])
* 2009 - "[[Structuralism ? Key to Reality and Meaning in Science]]" ([http://www.commonsensescience.net/pdf/articles/structuralism_v12n4.pdf Read in full])
* 2008 - "[[The Electrodynamic Origin of the Force of Gravity, Part 1]]" ([http://www.naturalphilosophy.org/pdf/abstracts/abstracts_1023.pdf Read in full])
* 2008 - "[[The Electrodynamic Origin of the Force of Inertia, Part 3]]" ([http://www.commonsensescience.net/pdf/articles/origin_of_inertia_P3_V11N2.pdf Read in full])
* 2008 - "[[The Electrodynamic Origin of the Force of Inertia, Part 2]]" ([http://www.commonsensescience.net/pdf/articles/origin_of_inertia_P2_V11N1.pdf Read in full])
* 2007 - "[[Derivation of the Universal Force Law, Part 4]]" ([http://www.commonsensescience.net/pdf/articles/derivation_of_the_universal_force_law_part4_FoS_V10N1.pdf Read in full])
* 2007 - "[[The Electrodynamic Origin of the Force of Inertia, Part 1]]" ([http://www.commonsensescience.net/pdf/articles/origin_of_inertia_P1_V10N4.pdf Read in full])
* 2006 - "[[A Classical Electrodynamic String Theory of Elementary Particles]]"
* 2006 - "[[A Classical Electrodynamic Theory of the Atom]]"
* 2006 - "[[A Classical Electrodynamic Theory of the Nucleus]]"
* 2006 - "[[Derivation of the Classical Universal Electrodynamic Force]]"
* 2006 - "[[Derivation of the Universal Force Law, Part 1]]" ([http://www.commonsensescience.net/pdf/articles/derivation_of_the_universal_force_law_part1_FoS_V9N2.pdf Read in full])
* 2006 - "[[Derivation of the Universal Force Law, Part 2]]" ([http://www.commonsensescience.net/pdf/articles/derivation_of_the_universal_force_law_part2_FoS_V9N3.pdf Read in full])
* 2006 - "[[Derivation of the Universal Force Law, Part 3]]" ([http://www.commonsensescience.net/pdf/articles/derivation_of_the_universal_force_law_part3_FoS_V9N4.pdf Read in full])
* 2006 - "[[The Electrodynamic Origin of the Force of Gravity ]]"
* 2006 - "[[The Electrodynamic Origin of the Force of Inertia]]"
* 2006 - "[[The Electrodynamic Origin of Life in Organic Molecules Such As DNA and Proteins]]"
* 2005 - "[[A Classical Electromagnetic Theory of Elementary Particles, Part 2, Intertwining Charge-Fibers]]" ([http://www.commonsensescience.net/pdf/articles/elementary_particles_part_2_fos_v8n2.pdf Read in full])
* 2005 - "[[A Classical Electromagnetic Theory of Everything]]"
* 2005 - "[[Derivation of a Universal Electromagnetic Force Law for Finite-Size Elastic Charged Particles]]"
* 2004 - "[[A Classical Electromagnetic Theory of Elementary Particles, Part 1: Introduction]]" ([http://www.commonsensescience.net/pdf/articles/elementary_particles_part_1_FoS_V7N4.pdf Read in full])
* 2003 - "[[Credibility of Common Sense Science]]" ([http://www.commonsensescience.net/pdf/articles/credibility_of_CSS_ps.pdf Read in full])
* 2003 - "[[A Physical Model for Atoms and Nuclei, Part 4: Blackbody Radiation and the Photoelectric Effect]]" ([http://www.commonsensescience.net/pdf/articles/a_physical_model_part_4.pdf Read in full])
* 2003 - "[[A Physical Model for Atoms and Nuclei, Part 3: Spectral Lines]]" ([http://www.commonsensescience.net/pdf/articles/Atom3b.pdf Read in full])
* 2002 - "[[A Classical Electromagnetic Theory of Elementary Particles]]"
* 2002 - "[[A Physical Model for Atoms and Nuclei, Part 1: Structure of Atoms]]" ([http://www.commonsensescience.net/pdf/articles/atomic_structure.pdf Read in full])
* 2002 - "[[A Physical Model for Atoms and Nuclei, Part 2: Structure of the Nucleus]]" ([http://www.commonsensescience.net/pdf/articles/nuclear_structure.pdf Read in full])
* 2001 - "[[A New Foundation for Modern Physics]]" ([http://www.commonsensescience.net/pdf/articles/new_foundation_for_modern_physics-FoS.pdf Read in full])
* 2000 - "[[Weber's Force Law for Realistic Finite-Size Elastic Particles]]"
* 1992 - "[[Electrodynamics of Real Particles vs. Maxwell's Equations, Relativity Theory and Quantum Mechanics]]"
* 1992 - "[[Overview of the Electrodynamic Approach to God's Creation and Daily sustaining of the Universe]]"

==Books==

* 2013 - "[[The Universal Force Volume 1: Derived From a More Perfect Union of the Axiomatic and Empirical Scientific Methods]]" ([http://www.worldsci.org/php/index.php?tab0=Events Read in full])
* 2014 - "Fingerprints of the Creator: The Source of All Beauty in Nature"

==Media==

* 2010 - [http://www.worldsci.org/videos/dimdim/event_359_dimdim.flv The Origin of Symmetry and Beauty in the Universe] (Video Lecture)
* 2009 - [http://www.worldsci.org/videos/dimdim/event_247_dimdim.flv The Electrodynamic Origin of the Force of Inertia (F = ma)] (Video Lecture)

[[Category:Scientist|Lucas Charles]]

David L Bergman

2020-06-18T21:52:26Z

CriticalT: death dsate & place

{{Infobox scientist
| name = David L. Bergman
| image = David L Bergman 237.jpg
| alt = David L. Bergman
| birth_date = {{birth date|1938|08|06|mf=y}}
| death_date = {{death date|2020|06|03|}}
| fields = [[Physicist]], [[Electrical Engineer]]
| residence = Roswell, GA, United States
| nationality = USA
| known_for = [[Electron]], [[Atomic Structure]], [[Toroidal Ring]], [[Fundamental Particles]]
}}

David L. Bergman grew up and worked on the Bergman Farm and Dairy established and operated by his grandfather, father, and uncles near Tulare, California. He excelled in high school academics, especially math and science, earned a BA in Physics at UC Berkeley in 1961, and an MSEE at UC Santa Barbara in 1967, after commencing his career.

After two years with Boeing Airplane Co. in Seattle, Bergman in 1963 began his 30-year career as a civilian Electrical Engineer working on military systems for the US Navy and Air Force. His engineering expertise and leadership produced electronic circuits when transistors first became available, radar guided missiles, and other major weapons.  The technical lessons learned in making electrical systems work gave him extensive insight into the nature and fundamental processes of the real world, paving the way for success in his post-employment career in fundamental physics.

In 1980, he recognized the electrical character of natural phenomena and began active research on elementary particles. In 1990, he published his first paper on the electron in ''Galilean Electrodyamics''. About this time he met [/php/DatabaseMenu.php?tab=1&memberid=142 Dr. Charles Lucas], whose research had led him to similar conclusions. In 1997, Bergman founded [http://www.commonsensescience.net/ Common Sense Science, Inc.], a non-profit corporation providing research and education in fundamental physics. Serving as president, he also writes and publishes the organization's quarterly journal, ''[/php/DatabaseMenu.php?tab=9&subtab=9&type=pretty&id=28 Foundations of Science]'', avidly read by hundreds of scientists and laymen around the world.

He married in 1968 and has two children living near him in metropolitan Atlanta, Georgia. In 2002, he married again, having one son by his new wife from the Philippines.  Retired from engineering duties, he spends his time with family, church activities, science research, science conferences, and various publications.

==Abstracts==

* 2012 - "[[Electron in the Ground Energy State ? Part 1]]" ([http://www.commonsensescience.net/pdf/articles/ground_energy_state_part_1_fos_v15n1.pdf Read in full])
* 2012 - "[[Electron in the Ground Energy State ? Part 2]]" ([http://www.commonsensescience.net/pdf/articles/ground_energy_state_part_2_fos_v15n2.pdf Read in full])
* 2011 - "[[Conflict of Atomism and Creation-Science in History]]" ([http://www.commonsensescience.net/pdf/articles/conflict_of_atomism_and_creation_science_in_history_fos_v14n4.pdf Read in full])
* 2010 - "[[Commentary on Sub-Quantum Physics]]" ([http://www.commonsensescience.net/pdf/articles/commentary_on_subquantum_physics_fos_v13n3.pdf Read in full])
* 2010 - "[[Modeling the Real Structure of an Electron]]" ([http://www.commonsensescience.net/pdf/articles/modeling_the_real_structure_of_an_electron_fos_v13n1.pdf Read in full])
* 2007 - "[[Science of Origins, Part 2 ? Empirical Evidence]]" ([http://www.commonsensescience.net/pdf/articles/science_of_origins_P2_Principles_V10N3.pdf Read in full])
* 2007 - "[[Science of Origins, Part 1 ? Principles]]" ([http://www.commonsensescience.net/pdf/articles/science_of_origins_P1_Principles_V10N2.pdf Read in full])
* 2006 - "[[Fine-Structure Properties of the Electron, Proton and Neutron]]" ([http://www.commonsensescience.net/pdf/articles/fine_stucture_properties_LoRes_3-2-06_FoS_V9N1.pdf Read in full])
* 2005 - "[[Electron Wave Function: Electromagnetic Waves Emitted by Ring Electrons]]" ([http://www.commonsensescience.net/pdf/articles/electron_wave_function_FoS_V8N3.pdf Read in full])
* 2005 - "[[FORMS OF Real Molecular Structures Progress Report]]" ([http://www.commonsensescience.net/pdf/articles/FORMS_Progress_Report_FoS_V8N1.pdf Read in full])
* 2005 - "[[No Government Funds for CSS Research: DARPA sees FORMS as Threat to Theories of Modern Physics]]" ([http://www.commonsensescience.net/pdf/articles/no_funding_for_FORMS_FoS_V8N4.pdf Read in full])
* 2005 - "[[The Troubled Theories of Magnetic Induction]]"
* 2004 - "[[The Law of Cause and Effect: Dominant Principle of Classical Physics]]" ([http://www.commonsensescience.net/pdf/articles/law_of_cause_and_effect_FoS_V7N3_(causality).pdf Read in full])
* 2004 - "[[Observations of the Properties of Physical Entities
Part 1 - Nature of the Physical World]]" ([http://www.commonsensescience.net/pdf/articles/nature_of_the_physical_world_P1_FoS_V7N1.pdf Read in full])
* 2004 - "[[Observations of the Properties of Physical Entities
Part 2 - Shape and Size of Electron, Proton and Neutron]]" ([http://www.commonsensescience.net/pdf/articles/nature_of_the_physical_world_P2_FoS_V7N2.pdf Read in full])
* 2003 - "[[Credibility of Common Sense Science]]" ([http://www.commonsensescience.net/pdf/articles/credibility_of_CSS_ps.pdf Read in full])
* 2003 - "[[Unification of Physics: Theory of Everything]]" ([http://www.commonsensescience.net/pdf/articles/unification_of_physics.pdf Read in full])
* 2002 - "[[Nuclear Binding and Half-Lives]]" ([http://www.commonsensescience.net/pdf/articles/nuclear_binding_half-lives.pdf Read in full])
* 2001 - "[[Hydrogen ? Element #1]]" ([http://www.commonsensescience.net/pdf/articles/hydrogen.pdf Read in full])
* 2001 - "[[Notions of a Neutron]]" ([http://www.commonsensescience.net/pdf/articles/neutrons.pdf Read in full])
* 2001 - "[[The Universe in Motion]]" ([http://www.commonsensescience.net/pdf/articles/process.pdf Read in full])
* 2000 - "[[The Real Proton]]" ([http://www.commonsensescience.net/pdf/articles/the_real_proton.pdf Read in full])
* 2000 - "[[Time, Motion, Relativity]]" ([http://www.commonsensescience.net/pdf/articles/time.pdf Read in full])
* 2000 - "[[The Troubled Theories of Magnetic Induction]]" ([http://www.commonsensescience.net/pdf/articles/magnetic_induction.pdf Read in full])
* 1999 - "[[Atoms and Void]]" ([http://www.commonsensescience.net/pdf/articles/atom_void.pdf Read in full])
* 1999 - "[[Matter Waves]]" ([http://www.commonsensescience.net/pdf/articles/matter_waves.pdf Read in full])
* 1999 - "[[Matter Waves]]"
* 1999 - "[[Models of the Electron]]" ([http://www.commonsensescience.net/pdf/articles/electron_models.pdf Read in full])
* 1999 - "[[Origin of Inertial Mass]]" ([http://www.commonsensescience.net/pdf/articles/inertial_mass.pdf Read in full])
* 1998 - "[[Comparison of Physical Models and Electromagnetic Field Theory to Quantum Mechanics and Theories of Relativity]]"
* 1998 - "[[Conflict of Atomism and Creationism in History]]" ([http://www.commonsensescience.net/pdf/articles/conflict_of_atomism_and_creationism_in_history.pdf Read in full])
* 1998 - "[[Physical Models of Matter
]]" ([http://www.commonsensescience.net/pdf/articles/physical_models_of_matter.pdf Read in full])
* 1998 - "[[Theory of Forces]]" ([http://www.commonsensescience.net/pdf/articles/theory_of_forces.pdf Read in full])
* 1998 - "[[Is There Truth in Science?]]" ([http://www.commonsensescience.net/pdf/articles/truth.pdf Read in full])
* 1997 - "[[Commentary on "Sub-Quantum Physics]]" ([http://www.commonsensescience.net/pdf/articles/commentary_on_subquantum_physics.pdf Read in full])
* 1997 - "[[Forces on Moving Objects]]" ([http://www.commonsensescience.net/pdf/articles/forces_on_moving_objects.pdf Read in full])
* 1997 - "[[Inertial Mass of Charged Elementary Particles ]]" ([http://www.commonsensescience.net/pdf/articles/inertial_mass_of_charged_elementary_particles.pdf Read in full])
* 1997 - "[[Physical Models for Elementary Particles, Atoms and Nuclei]]"
* 1997 - "[[Physical Models of Matter]]" ([http://www.commonsensescience.net/pdf/articles/physical_models_of_matter.pdf Read in full])
* 1993 - "[[Charged Ring Model of Elementary Particles: A Controversy]]"
* 1992 - "[[New Spinning Charged Ring Model of the Electron]]"
* 1992 - "[[The Stable Elementary Particles]]"
* 1991 - "[[Spinning Charged Ring Model of Elementary Particles]]"
* 1990 - "[[Spinning Charged Ring Model of Electron Yielding Anomalous Magnetic Moment]]" ([http://www.commonsensescience.net/pdf/articles/spinning_charged_ring_model_of_electron_yields_new.pdf Read in full])

==Books==

* 2002 - "[[Science and Rationalism: Correspondence of Scientists and Philosophers Seeking Truth and Searching for Reality in the Ideas of Plato, the Bible, and Advanced Science]]" ([http://www.commonsensescience.net Read in full])

[[Category:Scientist|Bergman David]]

David L Bergman

2020-06-18T00:41:28Z

CriticalT: Changed 38 Citations from commonsensescience.org to commonsensescience.net

{{Infobox scientist
| name = David L. Bergman
| image = David L Bergman 237.jpg
| alt = David L. Bergman
| birth_date = {{birth date|1938|08|06|mf=y}}
| fields = [[Physicist]], [[Electrical Engineer]]
| residence = Roswell, GA, United States
| nationality = USA
| known_for = [[Electron]], [[Atomic Structure]], [[Toroidal Ring]], [[Fundamental Particles]]
}}

David L. Bergman grew up and worked on the Bergman Farm and Dairy established and operated by his grandfather, father, and uncles near Tulare, California. He excelled in high school academics, especially math and science, earned a BA in Physics at UC Berkeley in 1961, and an MSEE at UC Santa Barbara in 1967, after commencing his career.

After two years with Boeing Airplane Co. in Seattle, Bergman in 1963 began his 30-year career as a civilian Electrical Engineer working on military systems for the US Navy and Air Force. His engineering expertise and leadership produced electronic circuits when transistors first became available, radar guided missiles, and other major weapons.  The technical lessons learned in making electrical systems work gave him extensive insight into the nature and fundamental processes of the real world, paving the way for success in his post-employment career in fundamental physics.

In 1980, he recognized the electrical character of natural phenomena and began active research on elementary particles. In 1990, he published his first paper on the electron in ''Galilean Electrodyamics''. About this time he met [/php/DatabaseMenu.php?tab=1&memberid=142 Dr. Charles Lucas], whose research had led him to similar conclusions. In 1997, Bergman founded [http://www.commonsensescience.net/ Common Sense Science, Inc.], a non-profit corporation providing research and education in fundamental physics. Serving as president, he also writes and publishes the organization's quarterly journal, ''[/php/DatabaseMenu.php?tab=9&subtab=9&type=pretty&id=28 Foundations of Science]'', avidly read by hundreds of scientists and laymen around the world.

He married in 1968 and has two children living near him in metropolitan Atlanta, Georgia. In 2002, he married again, having one son by his new wife from the Philippines.  Retired from engineering duties, he spends his time with family, church activities, science research, science conferences, and various publications.

==Abstracts==

* 2012 - "[[Electron in the Ground Energy State ? Part 1]]" ([http://www.commonsensescience.net/pdf/articles/ground_energy_state_part_1_fos_v15n1.pdf Read in full])
* 2012 - "[[Electron in the Ground Energy State ? Part 2]]" ([http://www.commonsensescience.net/pdf/articles/ground_energy_state_part_2_fos_v15n2.pdf Read in full])
* 2011 - "[[Conflict of Atomism and Creation-Science in History]]" ([http://www.commonsensescience.net/pdf/articles/conflict_of_atomism_and_creation_science_in_history_fos_v14n4.pdf Read in full])
* 2010 - "[[Commentary on Sub-Quantum Physics]]" ([http://www.commonsensescience.net/pdf/articles/commentary_on_subquantum_physics_fos_v13n3.pdf Read in full])
* 2010 - "[[Modeling the Real Structure of an Electron]]" ([http://www.commonsensescience.net/pdf/articles/modeling_the_real_structure_of_an_electron_fos_v13n1.pdf Read in full])
* 2007 - "[[Science of Origins, Part 2 ? Empirical Evidence]]" ([http://www.commonsensescience.net/pdf/articles/science_of_origins_P2_Principles_V10N3.pdf Read in full])
* 2007 - "[[Science of Origins, Part 1 ? Principles]]" ([http://www.commonsensescience.net/pdf/articles/science_of_origins_P1_Principles_V10N2.pdf Read in full])
* 2006 - "[[Fine-Structure Properties of the Electron, Proton and Neutron]]" ([http://www.commonsensescience.net/pdf/articles/fine_stucture_properties_LoRes_3-2-06_FoS_V9N1.pdf Read in full])
* 2005 - "[[Electron Wave Function: Electromagnetic Waves Emitted by Ring Electrons]]" ([http://www.commonsensescience.net/pdf/articles/electron_wave_function_FoS_V8N3.pdf Read in full])
* 2005 - "[[FORMS OF Real Molecular Structures Progress Report]]" ([http://www.commonsensescience.net/pdf/articles/FORMS_Progress_Report_FoS_V8N1.pdf Read in full])
* 2005 - "[[No Government Funds for CSS Research: DARPA sees FORMS as Threat to Theories of Modern Physics]]" ([http://www.commonsensescience.net/pdf/articles/no_funding_for_FORMS_FoS_V8N4.pdf Read in full])
* 2005 - "[[The Troubled Theories of Magnetic Induction]]"
* 2004 - "[[The Law of Cause and Effect: Dominant Principle of Classical Physics]]" ([http://www.commonsensescience.net/pdf/articles/law_of_cause_and_effect_FoS_V7N3_(causality).pdf Read in full])
* 2004 - "[[Observations of the Properties of Physical Entities
Part 1 - Nature of the Physical World]]" ([http://www.commonsensescience.net/pdf/articles/nature_of_the_physical_world_P1_FoS_V7N1.pdf Read in full])
* 2004 - "[[Observations of the Properties of Physical Entities
Part 2 - Shape and Size of Electron, Proton and Neutron]]" ([http://www.commonsensescience.net/pdf/articles/nature_of_the_physical_world_P2_FoS_V7N2.pdf Read in full])
* 2003 - "[[Credibility of Common Sense Science]]" ([http://www.commonsensescience.net/pdf/articles/credibility_of_CSS_ps.pdf Read in full])
* 2003 - "[[Unification of Physics: Theory of Everything]]" ([http://www.commonsensescience.net/pdf/articles/unification_of_physics.pdf Read in full])
* 2002 - "[[Nuclear Binding and Half-Lives]]" ([http://www.commonsensescience.net/pdf/articles/nuclear_binding_half-lives.pdf Read in full])
* 2001 - "[[Hydrogen ? Element #1]]" ([http://www.commonsensescience.net/pdf/articles/hydrogen.pdf Read in full])
* 2001 - "[[Notions of a Neutron]]" ([http://www.commonsensescience.net/pdf/articles/neutrons.pdf Read in full])
* 2001 - "[[The Universe in Motion]]" ([http://www.commonsensescience.net/pdf/articles/process.pdf Read in full])
* 2000 - "[[The Real Proton]]" ([http://www.commonsensescience.net/pdf/articles/the_real_proton.pdf Read in full])
* 2000 - "[[Time, Motion, Relativity]]" ([http://www.commonsensescience.net/pdf/articles/time.pdf Read in full])
* 2000 - "[[The Troubled Theories of Magnetic Induction]]" ([http://www.commonsensescience.net/pdf/articles/magnetic_induction.pdf Read in full])
* 1999 - "[[Atoms and Void]]" ([http://www.commonsensescience.net/pdf/articles/atom_void.pdf Read in full])
* 1999 - "[[Matter Waves]]" ([http://www.commonsensescience.net/pdf/articles/matter_waves.pdf Read in full])
* 1999 - "[[Matter Waves]]"
* 1999 - "[[Models of the Electron]]" ([http://www.commonsensescience.net/pdf/articles/electron_models.pdf Read in full])
* 1999 - "[[Origin of Inertial Mass]]" ([http://www.commonsensescience.net/pdf/articles/inertial_mass.pdf Read in full])
* 1998 - "[[Comparison of Physical Models and Electromagnetic Field Theory to Quantum Mechanics and Theories of Relativity]]"
* 1998 - "[[Conflict of Atomism and Creationism in History]]" ([http://www.commonsensescience.net/pdf/articles/conflict_of_atomism_and_creationism_in_history.pdf Read in full])
* 1998 - "[[Physical Models of Matter
]]" ([http://www.commonsensescience.net/pdf/articles/physical_models_of_matter.pdf Read in full])
* 1998 - "[[Theory of Forces]]" ([http://www.commonsensescience.net/pdf/articles/theory_of_forces.pdf Read in full])
* 1998 - "[[Is There Truth in Science?]]" ([http://www.commonsensescience.net/pdf/articles/truth.pdf Read in full])
* 1997 - "[[Commentary on "Sub-Quantum Physics]]" ([http://www.commonsensescience.net/pdf/articles/commentary_on_subquantum_physics.pdf Read in full])
* 1997 - "[[Forces on Moving Objects]]" ([http://www.commonsensescience.net/pdf/articles/forces_on_moving_objects.pdf Read in full])
* 1997 - "[[Inertial Mass of Charged Elementary Particles ]]" ([http://www.commonsensescience.net/pdf/articles/inertial_mass_of_charged_elementary_particles.pdf Read in full])
* 1997 - "[[Physical Models for Elementary Particles, Atoms and Nuclei]]"
* 1997 - "[[Physical Models of Matter]]" ([http://www.commonsensescience.net/pdf/articles/physical_models_of_matter.pdf Read in full])
* 1993 - "[[Charged Ring Model of Elementary Particles: A Controversy]]"
* 1992 - "[[New Spinning Charged Ring Model of the Electron]]"
* 1992 - "[[The Stable Elementary Particles]]"
* 1991 - "[[Spinning Charged Ring Model of Elementary Particles]]"
* 1990 - "[[Spinning Charged Ring Model of Electron Yielding Anomalous Magnetic Moment]]" ([http://www.commonsensescience.net/pdf/articles/spinning_charged_ring_model_of_electron_yields_new.pdf Read in full])

==Books==

* 2002 - "[[Science and Rationalism: Correspondence of Scientists and Philosophers Seeking Truth and Searching for Reality in the Ideas of Plato, the Bible, and Advanced Science]]" ([http://www.commonsensescience.net Read in full])

[[Category:Scientist|Bergman David]]

Hossein Turner

2020-02-19T15:37:55Z

CriticalT:

{{Infobox scientist
| name = Hossein Turner
| image = Hossein Turner 2506.jpg
| alt = Hossein Turner
| birth_date = {{birth date|1982|07|05|mf=y}}
| fields = [[Freelance writer and researcher]]
| residence = Durham, UK, United Kingdom
| nationality = British
| known_for = [[Electric Universe]], [[Freelance journalist and writer]]
}}

I am a freelance writer and journalist residing in the UK. My areas of interest are quite wide-ranging; from politics to technology. I have in recent years become highly interested in both plasma cosmology and Electric Universe theory and have published two articles as well as blog pieces on the subject in order to try and spread the word. I am very much interested in furthering my knowledge in the area of Electric Universe science, as well as possibly contributing to the growing body of knowledge that is emerging from this new paradigm.

<div> </div> <div> </div>

==Abstracts==

* 2012 - "[[Terrestial Field-Aligned Currents and Mesocyclone Phenomena: A Tentative Hypothesis]]" ([http://www.naturalphilosophy.org/pdf/abstracts/abstracts_6800.pdf Read in full])

[[Category:Scientist|Turner Hossein]]

Nick Percival

2019-04-10T20:23:56Z

CriticalT: fixing typo

{{Infobox scientist
| name = Nick Percival
| image = Nick Percival 965.jpg
| alt = Nick Percival
| birth_date = {{birth date|1942|09|30|mf=y}}
| fields = [[Entrepreneur]]
| residence = Ridgefield, CT, United States
| nationality = USA
| known_for = [[relativity]]
}}

Nick Percival is an [[American]] scientist and entrepreneur who is best known for his work criticizing and explaining Einstein's [[special theory of relativity's]] treatment of time. Nick graduated from Harvard in 1964 with a degree in Physics. That started a, now, 50+ year focus on the Twin Paradox and from those studies a unique view of the relationship between Special Relativity and aether theory.

==Scientific Work==

Most CNPS/NPA members can relate to Nick's path espousing his alternative views. Nick initially debated many individual professors who held standard views of how the net proper time difference accumulates in a Twin Paradox scenario. The problems encountered in those debates led Nick to define a new debate methodology. New debates are done entirely in terms of pairs of events and the PROPER time between those event pairs - the technique is described at [http://twinparadox.net/ http://twinparadox.net/] In addition, Nick published 5 papers defining his views. Despite, ?winning? debates, little impact on the physics community resulted. Hence, Nick's current focus is on data from GPS that clearly shows that asymmetric clock retardation is the correct physics model rather than Special Relativity's time dilation model.

Nick holds that while a preferred frame theory such as aether theory gives the correct physical model for how clocks and other process rates are a function of absolute velocity, special relativity can be used for certain limited physics phenomena to get the correct numerical answer even though the implied physics is incorrect. Note that all the clock rate data claimed to support special relativity supports the preferred frame model and further, some of the clock rate data claimed to support special relativity actually refutes special relativity but is consistent with preferred frame theory - see [http://twinparadox.net/ http://twinparadox.net/].

Nick is a member and also, as of 2016, a director and officer (Secretary), of the CNPS, the current leading scientific institution on "spacetime" physics and on the forefront of many new physics breakthroughs.

==Professional Career==
As an entrepreneur, Nick started several companies. Most recently, Nick, starting in the late 1990's, co-founded TeacherWeb.com with the goal of providing teachers/educators a super easy way to create and update webs for communicating with students (and parents). Nick developed the software system as the sole developer and received a patent for the technology that enabled ease of use even for those not familiar with the Internet or computers.

==YouTube Channel==
Nick currently hosts his own YouTube Channel called [https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCfucv1ZRMKTxDO7cuHEf3hQ "Nick of Time"]

==Abstracts==

* 2016 - "[[Analyzing Special Relativity’s Time Dilation Within The Context of Lorentz Relativity]]"
* 2013 - "[[Data That Allegedly Proves Special Relativity Disproves It]]" ([www.TwinParadox.net Read in full])
* 2012 - "[[Twin Paradox Project Update Including the Mainstream Response]]" ([http://www.naturalphilosophy.org/pdf/abstracts/abstracts_6559.pdf Read in full])
* 2009 - "[[Implications For SRT: Observations From A Long Odyssey]]"
* 2009 - "[[The Twin Paradox: How To Win The Debate]]"
* 2006 - "[[A Very Doable Experiment For NASA To Look Inside The Twin Paradox]]" ([http://worknotes.com/Physics/SpecialRelativity/TwinParadox/ap4.stm Read in full])

==Media==

* 2011 - [http://www.worldsci.org/videos/dimdim/event_373_dimdim.flv A Very Doable Experiment for NASA To Look Inside the Twin Paradox] (Video Lecture)
* 2009 - [http://www.worldsci.org/videos/dimdim/event_130_dimdim.flv The Twin Paradox - How to Win the Debate] (Video Lecture)

[[Category:Scientist|Percival Nick]]
[[Category:Gravity|Percival Nick]]
[[Category:Relativity|Percival Nick]]
[[Category:Cosmology|Percival Nick]]
[[Category:American|Percival Nick]]

George Staniforth Coyne

2019-03-25T01:27:11Z

CriticalT:

{{Infobox scientist
| image = George Coyne.jpg
| name = George Staniforth Coyne
| alt = George Staniforth Coyne
| birth_date = {{birth date|1952|10|02|mf=y}}
| residence = North Delta, BC, Canada
| nationality = Canadian
| known_for = [[Cosmology and physics]], [[member of Thescientific worldview.blogspot.ca]] [[and head of the Vancouver regional office of The Progressive Science Institute. Editor]] [[and writer for sciencewoke.org]]
}}

George Coyne is a Canadian scientist, philosopher, author and counsellor. While critiquing relatvity theory and popular interpretations of quantum mechanics, he discusses alternatives that do not contain paradoxes or contradictions. He also writes about a new paradigm for consciousness, which does not require anything other than brain functioning. He is a board member of the John Chappell Natural Philosophy Society, a scientific society for the philosophical study of nature and the physical universe. He authored the 2017 book [[Notfinity Process: Microcosms-in-Motion]].

[[Steven Bryant]], computer scientist, theoretical physics theorist and author of Disruptive:Rewriting the Rules of Physics, writes: “On the forefront of the next scientific revolution, George is amongst the first to embrace theories like Modern Mechanics, which outperforms Einstein’s theory of relativity. George moves beyond the question of whether Einstein is right and instead begins answering: Where do we go from here? He challenges the scientific worldview by introducing his own ideas while synthesizing thought, theories and ideas of 21st century physics.”

==Early Life==

Coyne’s interest in science began at the age of four when first attempting to conceive of the Earth in the universe. Since his youth he has been exploring the wonders of the ways that we connect to our environment which led to his interests in philosophy, cosmology and theoretical physics. At age 11 he began wondering about what was involved in the concept of “time” and began questioning conventional assumptions about it. By age 15 he no longer accepted that time was a flowing thing. By age 20, he was sure that accepted definitions for time were invalid. He next began seeking definitions for matter, energy, and space, but was unable to find any that made sense. It appeared that scientists had no idea about how these concepts represented any particular thing or occurrence in the universe. To Coyne they appeared to be using their professional power to validate their views on these topics.

==Scientific History==

In his early 20s, Coyne began studying quantum mechanics and relativity physics. Many of the quantum mechanic books were on the Copenhagen interpretation, which did not seem possible. One of the biggest disagreements with this view concerned the concept that the universe cannot exist unless an observation occurs, or one makes a measurement.

In 1981 Coyne became interested in [[David Bohm]]'s interpretation of quantum mechanics because it did not contain impossible concepts, contradictions, or paradoxes, such as duality. However, he did not agree with Bohm's contention that one could alternate between holding deterministic and indeterministic worldviews depending on the situation.

On August 1, 2014, Coyne began corresponding with Bohm's friend and associate, the late quantum physicist F. David Peat, the director of The Pari Center for New Learning. Coyne treasured his friendship with Peat, who encouraged him to expand on his writings on consciousness, hich first appeared in Dr. [[Glenn Borchardt]]’s w[http://thescientificworldview.blogspot.com http://thescientificworldview.blogspot.com]. Coyne shares Borchardt’s world view, and considers him to be one of his closest friends. Coyne began writing guest blogs for The Scientific Worldview web site in August 2015 including one co-written with Glenn Borchardt. He also contributes comments frequently to blogs on the website.

Coyne began corresponding with theoretical physicist Dr. Basil Hiley, who co-wrote “The Undivided Universe” with David Bohm and won The Majorana Prize for Best person in physics in 2012. Coyne is grateful for Hiley taking the time to clarify one of his concepts, which appears verbatim with permission in Coyne’s "Notfinity Process". Although Coyne was pleased to speak with Dr Hiley, and listened attentively to his paper at the Emergent Quantum Mechanics David Bohm Centennial Symposium in London, England on October 27,2017, he did not get an opportunity to discuss physics with him over the three day symposium in a setting with over 1000 of some of the world's leading Bohmmian quantum physicists.

On July 22, 2017 Coyne presented a consciousness paper to scientists for the John Chappell Natural Philosophy Society international conference at the University of British Columbia. As a result of the high quality of the paper, with its unique explanation of consciousness, great interest from the physicists, computer scientists and other scientists in attendance, and from the general public who viewed it an astounding 2700 times on facebook within two months, Coyne was invited to the Board of the Board of Directors of the John Chappell Natural Philosophy Society.Its website provides the following statement: “CNPS provides an open forum for the study, debate, and presentation of serious scientific ideas, theories, philosophies, and experiments that are not commonly accepted in mainstream science. The [[CNPS]] uses the term “[[Natural Philosophy]]” in its broader sense which includes physics, cosmology, mathematics, and the philosophy of science. Our goal is to return to the basics where things went wrong and start anew.” Coyne also heads the Vancouver chapter of the Progressive Science Institute.

Coyne contends that there are huge invalidating issues with Einstein’s relativity, the standard interpretation of quantum mechanics and the Big Bang theory. Additionally he questions the idea of the psychological self as an entity. He proposes that it is merely a program in the brain. In Coyne’s view when a theory relies on invalid abstractions, he is willing to challenge its proponents regardless of how esteemed and powerful they may appear. If a theory has contradictions, then it cannot be valid. Coyne refuses to become emotionally invested in any theory, including his own. For him the search for truth is all that matters.

Coyne contends that there are huge invalidating issues with Einstein’s relativity, the standard interpretation of quantum mechanics and the Big Bang theory. Additionally he questions the idea of the psychological self as an entity. He proposes that it is merely a program in the brain. In Coyne’s view when a theory relies on invalid abstractions, he is willing to challenge its proponents regardless of how esteemed and powerful they may appear. If a theory has contradictions, then it cannot be valid. Coyne refuses to become emotionally invested in any theory, including his own. For him the search for truth is all that matters.

Although he has many disagreements with the prevalent interpretations of quantum mechanics, Coyne was pleased to accept an invitation from philosopher of mind Paavo Pylkkänen, the co-host of the emergent Quantum Mechanics David Bohm Centennial Symposium, to attend the October 26th to 28th, 2017 conference in London, England. Presenters included many of the world’s 37 leading physicists and philosophers, including Sir Roger Penrose. Basil Hiley, [[Media:Max Tegmark]], Paavo Pylkkänen, and mathematical physicist Maurice de Gosson. Coyne had an opportunity to confer with these researchers and many of the other speakers, participants and attendees.

==Other Work==

Notfinity Process: Microcosms-in-Motion, which critiques the Big Bang Theory, quantum mechanics and relativity theory was published on September 21st, 2017. In the category of new physics systems titles, his book was number one in the United States and Canada from the day it was published on September 21st, and fluctuated in and out of the number one spot for its category for the first two weeks. Over the next four weeks it remained in the top five spots.

On September 22, 2017 Coyne had a lively and fascinating interview about his book on the youtube channel of Florida scientist [[David de Hilster]]. In November 2017 Coyne cancelled his agreement with the publisher. The second edition of Notfinity Process will be published by The John Chappell Natural Philosophy Society in April 2019.

On May 1, 2019 Coyne's article titled "Big Problem with the Big Bang Theory is scheduled to appear in the premier issue of Science Woke at www.sciencewoke.org.

Coyne has been asked to design and teach an undergraduate course—where students will learn about the the latest research on mind and consciousness—at the soon to be opened Chappell University, which will be offering online courses for credit. Coyne has not yet committed himself to teaching this.

==Personal Life==

Coyne resides in North Delta, a suburb of Vancouver, B.C. In his leisure time he enjoys reading and writing on theoretical physics, and discussing his physics cosmology and consciousness theories with others. He enjoys his physics discussions with a close friend whose papers are on the cause of gravity, electricity, magnetism, inertia and the structure of atoms appear in the peer reviewed journal "Physics Essays."

Coyne is a proponent of a whole foods organic vegan diet and is known to encourage others to avoid junk food and to participate in exercises that they enjoy.

[[Category:Scientist|Coyne George Staniforth]]

George Staniforth Coyne

2019-03-25T01:26:07Z

CriticalT: Birth date & formatting

{{Infobox scientist
| image = George Coyne.jpg
| name = George Staniforth Coyne
| alt = George Staniforth Coyne
| birth_date = {{birth date|1952|10|02|mf=y}}
| residence = North Delta, BC, Canada
| nationality = Canadian
| known_for = [[Cosmology and physics]], [[member of Thescientific worldview.blogspot.ca]] [[{and head of the Vancouver regional office of The Progressive Science Institute. Editor]] [[and writer for sciencewoke.org]]
}}

George Coyne is a Canadian scientist, philosopher, author and counsellor. While critiquing relatvity theory and popular interpretations of quantum mechanics, he discusses alternatives that do not contain paradoxes or contradictions. He also writes about a new paradigm for consciousness, which does not require anything other than brain functioning. He is a board member of the John Chappell Natural Philosophy Society, a scientific society for the philosophical study of nature and the physical universe. He authored the 2017 book [[Notfinity Process: Microcosms-in-Motion]].

[[Steven Bryant]], computer scientist, theoretical physics theorist and author of Disruptive:Rewriting the Rules of Physics, writes: “On the forefront of the next scientific revolution, George is amongst the first to embrace theories like Modern Mechanics, which outperforms Einstein’s theory of relativity. George moves beyond the question of whether Einstein is right and instead begins answering: Where do we go from here? He challenges the scientific worldview by introducing his own ideas while synthesizing thought, theories and ideas of 21st century physics.”

==Early Life==

Coyne’s interest in science began at the age of four when first attempting to conceive of the Earth in the universe. Since his youth he has been exploring the wonders of the ways that we connect to our environment which led to his interests in philosophy, cosmology and theoretical physics. At age 11 he began wondering about what was involved in the concept of “time” and began questioning conventional assumptions about it. By age 15 he no longer accepted that time was a flowing thing. By age 20, he was sure that accepted definitions for time were invalid. He next began seeking definitions for matter, energy, and space, but was unable to find any that made sense. It appeared that scientists had no idea about how these concepts represented any particular thing or occurrence in the universe. To Coyne they appeared to be using their professional power to validate their views on these topics.

==Scientific History==

In his early 20s, Coyne began studying quantum mechanics and relativity physics. Many of the quantum mechanic books were on the Copenhagen interpretation, which did not seem possible. One of the biggest disagreements with this view concerned the concept that the universe cannot exist unless an observation occurs, or one makes a measurement.

In 1981 Coyne became interested in [[David Bohm]]'s interpretation of quantum mechanics because it did not contain impossible concepts, contradictions, or paradoxes, such as duality. However, he did not agree with Bohm's contention that one could alternate between holding deterministic and indeterministic worldviews depending on the situation.

On August 1, 2014, Coyne began corresponding with Bohm's friend and associate, the late quantum physicist F. David Peat, the director of The Pari Center for New Learning. Coyne treasured his friendship with Peat, who encouraged him to expand on his writings on consciousness, hich first appeared in Dr. [[Glenn Borchardt]]’s w[http://thescientificworldview.blogspot.com http://thescientificworldview.blogspot.com]. Coyne shares Borchardt’s world view, and considers him to be one of his closest friends. Coyne began writing guest blogs for The Scientific Worldview web site in August 2015 including one co-written with Glenn Borchardt. He also contributes comments frequently to blogs on the website.

Coyne began corresponding with theoretical physicist Dr. Basil Hiley, who co-wrote “The Undivided Universe” with David Bohm and won The Majorana Prize for Best person in physics in 2012. Coyne is grateful for Hiley taking the time to clarify one of his concepts, which appears verbatim with permission in Coyne’s "Notfinity Process". Although Coyne was pleased to speak with Dr Hiley, and listened attentively to his paper at the Emergent Quantum Mechanics David Bohm Centennial Symposium in London, England on October 27,2017, he did not get an opportunity to discuss physics with him over the three day symposium in a setting with over 1000 of some of the world's leading Bohmmian quantum physicists.

On July 22, 2017 Coyne presented a consciousness paper to scientists for the John Chappell Natural Philosophy Society international conference at the University of British Columbia. As a result of the high quality of the paper, with its unique explanation of consciousness, great interest from the physicists, computer scientists and other scientists in attendance, and from the general public who viewed it an astounding 2700 times on facebook within two months, Coyne was invited to the Board of the Board of Directors of the John Chappell Natural Philosophy Society.Its website provides the following statement: “CNPS provides an open forum for the study, debate, and presentation of serious scientific ideas, theories, philosophies, and experiments that are not commonly accepted in mainstream science. The [[CNPS]] uses the term “[[Natural Philosophy]]” in its broader sense which includes physics, cosmology, mathematics, and the philosophy of science. Our goal is to return to the basics where things went wrong and start anew.” Coyne also heads the Vancouver chapter of the Progressive Science Institute.

Coyne contends that there are huge invalidating issues with Einstein’s relativity, the standard interpretation of quantum mechanics and the Big Bang theory. Additionally he questions the idea of the psychological self as an entity. He proposes that it is merely a program in the brain. In Coyne’s view when a theory relies on invalid abstractions, he is willing to challenge its proponents regardless of how esteemed and powerful they may appear. If a theory has contradictions, then it cannot be valid. Coyne refuses to become emotionally invested in any theory, including his own. For him the search for truth is all that matters.

Coyne contends that there are huge invalidating issues with Einstein’s relativity, the standard interpretation of quantum mechanics and the Big Bang theory. Additionally he questions the idea of the psychological self as an entity. He proposes that it is merely a program in the brain. In Coyne’s view when a theory relies on invalid abstractions, he is willing to challenge its proponents regardless of how esteemed and powerful they may appear. If a theory has contradictions, then it cannot be valid. Coyne refuses to become emotionally invested in any theory, including his own. For him the search for truth is all that matters.

Although he has many disagreements with the prevalent interpretations of quantum mechanics, Coyne was pleased to accept an invitation from philosopher of mind Paavo Pylkkänen, the co-host of the emergent Quantum Mechanics David Bohm Centennial Symposium, to attend the October 26th to 28th, 2017 conference in London, England. Presenters included many of the world’s 37 leading physicists and philosophers, including Sir Roger Penrose. Basil Hiley, [[Media:Max Tegmark]], Paavo Pylkkänen, and mathematical physicist Maurice de Gosson. Coyne had an opportunity to confer with these researchers and many of the other speakers, participants and attendees.

==Other Work==

Notfinity Process: Microcosms-in-Motion, which critiques the Big Bang Theory, quantum mechanics and relativity theory was published on September 21st, 2017. In the category of new physics systems titles, his book was number one in the United States and Canada from the day it was published on September 21st, and fluctuated in and out of the number one spot for its category for the first two weeks. Over the next four weeks it remained in the top five spots.

On September 22, 2017 Coyne had a lively and fascinating interview about his book on the youtube channel of Florida scientist [[David de Hilster]]. In November 2017 Coyne cancelled his agreement with the publisher. The second edition of Notfinity Process will be published by The John Chappell Natural Philosophy Society in April 2019.

On May 1, 2019 Coyne's article titled "Big Problem with the Big Bang Theory is scheduled to appear in the premier issue of Science Woke at www.sciencewoke.org.

Coyne has been asked to design and teach an undergraduate course—where students will learn about the the latest research on mind and consciousness—at the soon to be opened Chappell University, which will be offering online courses for credit. Coyne has not yet committed himself to teaching this.

==Personal Life==

Coyne resides in North Delta, a suburb of Vancouver, B.C. In his leisure time he enjoys reading and writing on theoretical physics, and discussing his physics cosmology and consciousness theories with others. He enjoys his physics discussions with a close friend whose papers are on the cause of gravity, electricity, magnetism, inertia and the structure of atoms appear in the peer reviewed journal "Physics Essays."

Coyne is a proponent of a whole foods organic vegan diet and is known to encourage others to avoid junk food and to participate in exercises that they enjoy.

[[Category:Scientist|Coyne George Staniforth]]

History of special relativity

2019-02-14T20:48:07Z

CriticalT: /* Criticisms */

{{Redirect|History of relativity|the history of general relativity|history of general relativity}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=June 2013}}
{{Wikisource portal|Relativity|Historical Papers on Relativity}}
The '''history of special relativity''' consists of many theoretical results and empirical findings obtained by [[Albert A. Michelson]], [[Hendrik Lorentz]], [[Henri Poincaré]] and others. It culminated in the theory of [[special relativity]] proposed by [[Albert Einstein]] and subsequent work of [[Max Planck]], [[Hermann Minkowski]] and others.

==Introduction==
Although [[Isaac Newton]] based his physics on [[absolute time and space]], he also adhered to the [[principle of relativity]] of [[Galileo Galilei]]. This can be stated as: as far as the laws of mechanics are concerned, all observers in inertial motion are equally privileged, and no preferred state of motion can be attributed to any particular inertial observer. However, as to electromagnetic theory and electrodynamics, during the 19th century the wave theory of light as a disturbance of a "light medium" or [[Luminiferous ether]] was widely accepted, the theory reaching its most developed form in the work of [[James Clerk Maxwell]]. According to Maxwell's theory, all optical and electrical phenomena propagate through that medium, which suggested that it should be possible to experimentally determine motion relative to the aether.

The failure of any known experiment to detect motion through the aether led [[Hendrik Lorentz]], starting in 1892, to develop [[Lorentz aether theory|a theory of electrodynamics]] based on an immobile luminiferous aether (about whose material constitution Lorentz didn't speculate), physical length contraction, and a "local time" in which Maxwell's equations retain their form in all inertial frames of reference. Working with Lorentz's aether theory, [[Henri Poincaré]], having earlier proposed the "relativity principle" as a general law of nature (including [[electrodynamics]] and [[gravitation]]), used this principle in 1905 to correct Lorentz's preliminary transformation formulas, resulting in an exact set of equations that are now called the [[Lorentz transformation]]s. A little later in the same year [[Albert Einstein]] published his original paper on [[special relativity]] in which, again based on the relativity principle, he independently derived and radically reinterpreted the Lorentz transformations by changing the fundamental definitions of space and time intervals, while abandoning the absolute simultaneity of Galilean kinematics, thus avoiding the need for any reference to a luminiferous aether in classical electrodynamics.<ref>{{cite book |title=Pseudo-Riemannian Geometry, [delta]-invariants and Applications |first1=Bang-yen |last1=Chen |publisher=World Scientific |year=2011 |isbn=981-4329-63-0 |page=92 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ogd9onz7oxAC}} [https://books.google.com/books?id=Ogd9onz7oxAC&pg=PA92 Extract of page 92]</ref> Subsequent work of [[Hermann Minkowski]], in which he introduced a 4-dimensional geometric "spacetime" model for Einstein's version of special relativity, paved the way for Einstein's later development of his [[general relativity|general theory of relativity]] and laid the foundations of [[Field (physics)|relativistic field theories]].

==Aether and electrodynamics of moving bodies==

===Aether models and Maxwell's equations===
Following the work of [[Thomas Young (scientist)|Thomas Young]] (1804) and [[Augustin-Jean Fresnel]] (1816), it was believed that light propagates as a [[transverse wave]] within an elastic medium called [[luminiferous aether]]. However, a distinction was made between optical and electrodynamical phenomena so it was necessary to create specific aether models for all phenomena. Attempts to unify those models or to create a complete mechanical description of them did not succeed,<ref>Whittaker (1951), 128ff</ref> but after considerable work by many scientists, including [[Michael Faraday]] and [[William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin|Lord Kelvin]], [[James Clerk Maxwell]] (1864) developed an accurate theory of [[electromagnetism]] by deriving a set of equations in [[electricity]], [[magnetism]] and [[inductance]], named [[Maxwell's equations]]. He first proposed that light was in fact undulations ([[electromagnetic radiation]]) in the ''same'' aetherial medium that is the cause of electric and magnetic phenomena. However, Maxwell's theory was unsatisfactory regarding the optics of moving bodies, and while he was able to present a complete mathematical model, he was not able to provide a coherent mechanical description of the aether.<ref>Whittaker (1951), 240ff</ref>

After [[Heinrich Hertz]] in 1887 demonstrated the existence of electromagnetic waves, Maxwell's theory was widely accepted. In addition, [[Oliver Heaviside]] and Hertz further developed the theory and introduced modernized versions of Maxwell's equations. The "Maxwell-Hertz" or "Heaviside-Hertz" equations subsequently formed an important basis for the further development of electrodynamics, and Heaviside's notation is still used today. Other important contributions to Maxwell's theory were made by [[George FitzGerald]], [[Joseph John Thomson]], [[John Henry Poynting]], [[Hendrik Lorentz]], and [[Joseph Larmor]].<ref>Whittaker (1951), 319ff</ref><ref>Janssen/Stachel (2004), 20</ref>

===Search for the aether===
Regarding the relative motion and the mutual influence of matter and aether, there were two controversial theories. One was developed by [[Augustin-Jean Fresnel|Fresnel]] (and subsequently Lorentz). This model (Stationary Aether Theory) supposed that light propagates as a transverse wave and aether is partially dragged with a certain coefficient by matter. Based on this assumption, Fresnel was able to explain the [[aberration of light]] and many optical phenomena.<ref>Whittaker (1951), 107ff</ref> The other hypothesis was proposed by [[George Gabriel Stokes]], who stated in 1845 that the aether was ''fully'' dragged by matter (later this view was also shared by Hertz). In this model the aether might be (by analogy with pine pitch) rigid for fast objects and fluid for slower objects. Thus the Earth could move through it fairly freely, but it would be rigid enough to transport light.<ref>Whittaker (1951), 386f</ref> Fresnel's theory was preferred because his [[Aether drag hypothesis|dragging coefficient]] was confirmed by the [[Hippolyte Fizeau|Fizeau]] [[Fizeau experiment|experiment in 1851]], who measured the speed of light in moving liquids.<ref>Janssen/Stachel (2004), 4–15</ref>

[[File:Albert Abraham Michelson.JPG|thumb|left|A. A. Michelson]] [[Albert A. Michelson]] (1881) tried to measure the relative motion of the Earth and aether (Aether-Wind), as it was expected in Fresnel's theory, by using an [[interferometer]]. He could not determine any relative motion, so he interpreted the result as a confirmation of the thesis of Stokes.<ref>Whittaker (1951), 390f</ref> However, Lorentz (1886) showed Michelson's calculations were wrong and that he had overestimated the accuracy of the measurement. This, together with the large margin of error, made the result of Michelson's experiment inconclusive. In addition, Lorentz showed that Stokes' completely dragged aether led to contradictory consequences, and therefore he supported an aether theory similar to Fresnel's.<ref>Whittaker (1951), 386ff</ref> To check Fresnel's theory again, Michelson and [[Edward W. Morley]] (1886) performed a repetition of the Fizeau experiment. Fresnel's dragging coefficient was confirmed very exactly on that occasion, and Michelson was now of the opinion that Fresnel's stationary aether theory was correct.<ref>Janssen/Stachel (2004), 18–19</ref> To clarify the situation, Michelson and Morley (1887) repeated Michelson's 1881-experiment, and they substantially increased the accuracy of the measurement. However, this now famous [[Michelson–Morley experiment]] again yielded a negative result, i.e., no motion of the apparatus through the aether was detected (although the Earth's velocity is 60 km/s different in the northern winter than summer). So the physicists were confronted with two seemingly contradictory experiments: the 1886-experiment as an apparent confirmation of Fresnel's stationary aether, and the 1887-experiment as an apparent confirmation of Stokes' completely dragged aether.<ref>Janssen/Stachel (2004), 19–20</ref>

A possible solution to the problem was shown by [[Woldemar Voigt]] (1887), who investigated the [[Doppler effect]] for waves propagating in an incompressible elastic medium and deduced transformation relations that left the [[wave equation]] in free space unchanged, and explained the negative result of the Michelson–Morley experiment. The [[History of Lorentz transformations#Voigt (1887)|Voigt transformations]] include the [[Lorentz factor]] <math>\scriptstyle{1/\sqrt{1-{v^2}/{c^2}}}</math> for the y- and z-coordinates, and a new time variable <math>\scriptstyle{t'=t-vx/c^2}</math> which later was called "local time". However, Voigt's work was completely ignored by his contemporaries.<ref>Miller (1981), 114–115</ref><ref name=pais>Pais (1982), Chap. 6b</ref>

FitzGerald (1889) offered another explanation of the negative result of the Michelson–Morley experiment. Contrary to Voigt, he speculated that the intermolecular forces are possibly of electrical origin so that material bodies would contract in the line of motion ([[length contraction]]). This was in connection with the work of Heaviside (1887), who determined that the electrostatic fields in motion were deformed (Heaviside Ellipsoid), which leads to physically undetermined conditions at the speed of light.<ref>Miller (1981), 99–100</ref> However, FitzGerald's idea remained widely unknown and was not discussed before [[Oliver Lodge]] published a summary of the idea in 1892.<ref>Brown (2001)</ref> Also Lorentz (1892b) proposed length contraction independently from FitzGerald in order to explain the Michelson–Morley experiment. For plausibility reasons, Lorentz referred to the analogy of the contraction of electrostatic fields. However, even Lorentz admitted that that was not a necessary reason and length-contraction consequently remained an [[ad hoc hypothesis]].<ref>Miller (1981), 27–29</ref><ref>Janssen (1995), Chap. 3.3</ref>

===Lorentz's theory of electrons===
[[File:Hendrik Antoon Lorentz, in 1916 geschilderd door Menso Kamelingh Onnes.jpg|thumb|right|Hendrik Antoon Lorentz]] Lorentz (1892a) set the foundations of [[Lorentz aether theory]], by assuming the existence of [[electron]]s which he separated from the aether, and by replacing the "Maxwell-Hertz" Equations by the "Maxwell-Lorentz" Equations. In his model, the aether is completely motionless and, contrary to Fresnel's theory, also is not partially dragged by matter. An important consequence of this notion was that the velocity of light is totally independent of the velocity of the source. Lorentz gave no statements about the mechanical nature of the aether and the electromagnetic processes, but, vice versa, tried to explain the mechanical processes by electromagnetic ones and therefore created an abstract electromagnetic æther. In the framework of his theory, Lorentz calculated, like Heaviside, the contraction of the electrostatic fields.<ref>Janssen (1995), Ch. 3.3</ref> Lorentz (1895) also introduced what he called the "Theorem of Corresponding States" for terms of first order in <math>\scriptstyle{v/c}</math>. This theorem states that a moving observer (relative to the aether) in his "fictitious" field makes the same observations as a resting observer in his "real" field. An important part of it was local time <math>\scriptstyle{t'=t-vx/c^2}</math>, which paved the way to the [[Lorentz transformation]] and which he introduced independently of Voigt. With the help of this concept, Lorentz could explain the [[aberration of light]], the [[Doppler effect]] and the Fizeau experiment as well. However, Lorentz's local time was only an auxiliary mathematical tool to simplify the transformation from one system into another – it was Poincaré in 1900 who recognized that "local time" is actually indicated by moving clocks.<ref name="Miller 1982">Miller (1982)</ref><ref>Zahar (1989)</ref><ref name="Galison 2002">Galison (2002)</ref> Lorentz also recognized that his theory violated the principle of action and reaction, since the aether acts on matter, but matter cannot act on the immobile aether.<ref name="Janssen 1995, Ch. 3.1">Janssen (1995), Ch. 3.1</ref>

A very similar model was created by [[Joseph Larmor]] (1897, 1900). Larmor was the first to put Lorentz's 1895-transformation into a form algebraically equivalent to the modern Lorentz transformations, however, he stated that his transformations preserved the form of Maxwell's equations only to second order of <math>\scriptstyle{v/c}</math>. Lorentz later noted that these transformations did in fact preserve the form of Maxwell's equations to all orders of <math>\scriptstyle{v/c}</math>. Larmor noticed on that occasion that length-contraction was derivable from the model; furthermore, he calculated some manner of [[time dilation]] for electron orbits. Larmor specified his considerations in 1900 and 1904.<ref name=pais /><ref>Macrossan (1986)</ref> Independently of Larmor, also Lorentz (1899) extended his transformation for second order terms and noted a (mathematical) Time Dilation effect as well.

Other physicists besides Lorentz and Larmor also tried to develop a consistent model of electrodynamics. For example, [[Emil Cohn]] (1900, 1901) created an alternative Electrodynamics in which he, as one of the first, discarded the existence of the aether (at least in the previous form) and would use, like [[Ernst Mach]], the fixed stars as a reference frame instead. Due to inconsistencies within his theory, like different light speeds in different directions, it was superseded by Lorentz's and Einstein's.<ref name="Janssen/Stachel 2004, 31-32">Janssen/Stachel (2004), 31–32</ref>

===Electromagnetic mass===
{{Main|Electromagnetic mass}}
During his development of Maxwell's Theory, [[J. J. Thomson]] (1881) recognized that charged bodies are harder to set in motion than uncharged bodies. Electrostatic fields behave as if they add an "electromagnetic mass" to the mechanical mass of the bodies. I.e., according to Thomson, electromagnetic energy corresponds to a certain mass. This was interpreted as some form of self-[[inductance]] of the electromagnetic field.<ref name="Miller 1981, 46">Miller (1981), 46</ref><ref>Whittaker (1951), 306ff; (1953) 51f</ref> He also noticed that the mass of a body ''in motion'' is increased by a constant quantity. Thomson's work was continued and perfected by FitzGerald, Heaviside (1888), and [[George Frederick Charles Searle]] (1896, 1897). For the electromagnetic mass they gave — in modern notation — the formula <math>\scriptstyle{m=(4/3)E/c^2}</math>, where <math>\scriptstyle{m}</math> is the electromagnetic mass and <math>\scriptstyle{E}</math> is the electromagnetic energy. Heaviside and Searle also recognized that the increase of the mass of a body is not constant and varies with its velocity. Consequently, Searle noted the impossibility of superluminal velocities, because infinite energy would be needed to exceed the speed of light. Also for Lorentz (1899), the integration of the speed-dependence of masses recognized by Thomson was especially important. He noticed that the mass not only varied due to speed, but is also dependent on the direction, and he introduced what Abraham later called "longitudinal" and "transverse" mass. (The transverse mass corresponds to what later was called [[relativistic mass]].<ref>Janssen (1995), Ch. 3.4</ref>)

[[Wilhelm Wien]] (1900) assumed (following the works of Thomson, Heaviside, and Searle) that the ''entire'' mass is of electromagnetic origin, which was formulated in the context that all forces of nature are electromagnetic ones (the "Electromagnetic World View"). Wien stated that, if it is assumed that gravitation is an electromagnetic effect too, then there has to be a proportionality between electromagnetic energy, inertial mass and gravitational mass.<ref>Miller (1981), 46, 103</ref> In the same paper [[Henri Poincaré]] (1900b) found another way of combining the concepts of mass and energy. He recognized that electromagnetic energy behaves like a fictitious fluid with mass density of <math>\scriptstyle{m=E/c^2}</math> (or <math>\scriptstyle{E=mc^2}</math>) and defined a fictitious electromagnetic momentum as well. However, he arrived at a radiation paradox which was fully explained by Einstein in 1905.<ref name="Darrigol 2005, 18-21">Darrigol (2005), 18–21</ref>

[[Walter Kaufmann (physicist)|Walter Kaufmann]] (1901–1903) was the first to confirm the velocity dependence of electromagnetic mass by analyzing the ratio <math>\scriptstyle{e/m}</math> (where <math>\scriptstyle{e}</math> is the charge and <math>\scriptstyle{m}</math> the mass) of [[cathode ray]]s. He found that the value of <math>\scriptstyle{e/m}</math> decreased with the speed, showing that, assuming the charge constant, the mass of the electron increased with the speed. He also believed that those experiments confirmed the assumption of Wien, that there is no "real" mechanical mass, but only the "apparent" electromagnetic mass, or in other words, the mass of all bodies is of electromagnetic origin.<ref>Miller (1981), 47–54</ref>

[[Max Abraham]] (1902–1904), who was a supporter of the electromagnetic world view, quickly offered an explanation for Kaufmann's experiments by deriving expressions for the electromagnetic mass. Together with this concept, Abraham introduced (like Poincaré in 1900) the notion of "Electromagnetic Momentum" which is proportional to <math>\scriptstyle{E/c^2}</math>. But unlike the fictitious quantities introduced by Poincaré, he considered it as a ''real'' physical entity. Abraham also noted (like Lorentz in 1899) that this mass also depends on the direction and coined the names "Longitudinal" and "Transverse" Mass. In contrast to Lorentz, he didn't incorporate the Contraction Hypothesis into his theory, and therefore his mass terms differed from those of Lorentz.<ref>Miller (1981), 61–67</ref>

Based on the preceding work on electromagnetic mass, [[Friedrich Hasenöhrl]] suggested that part of the mass of a body (which he called apparent mass) can be thought of as radiation bouncing around a cavity. The "apparent mass" of radiation depends on the temperature (because every heated body emits radiation) and is proportional to its energy. Hasenöhrl stated that this energy-apparent-mass relation only holds as long as the body radiates, i.e., if the temperature of a body is greater than 0 K. At first he gave the expression <math>\scriptstyle{m=(8/3)E/c^2}</math> for the apparent mass; however, Abraham and Hasenöhrl himself in 1905 changed the result to <math>\scriptstyle{m=(4/3)E/c^2}</math>, the same value as for the electromagnetic mass for a body at rest.<ref>Miller (1981), 359–360</ref>

===Absolute space and time===
Some scientists and philosophers of science were critical of Newton's definitions of absolute space and time.<ref>Lange (1886)</ref><ref>Giulini (2001), Ch. 4</ref><ref>DiSalle (2002)</ref> [[Ernst Mach]] (1883) argued that [[absolute time and space]] are essentially metaphysical concepts and thus scientifically meaningless, and suggested that only relative motion between material bodies is a useful concept in physics. Mach argued that even effects that according to Newton depend on accelerated motion with respect to absolute space, such as rotation, could be described purely with reference to material bodies, and that the inertial effects cited by Newton in support of absolute space might instead be related purely to acceleration with respect to the fixed stars. [[Carl Neumann]] (1870) introduced a "Body alpha", which represents some sort of rigid and fixed body for defining inertial motion. Based on the definition of Neumann, [[Heinrich Streintz]] (1883) argued that in a coordinate system where [[gyroscope]]s don't measure any signs of rotation, then one can speak of inertial motion which is related to a "Fundamental body" and a "Fundamental Coordinate System". Eventually, [[Ludwig Lange (physicist)|Ludwig Lange]] (1885) was the first to coin the expression [[inertial frame of reference]] and "inertial time scale" as operational replacements for absolute space and time; he defined "inertial frame" as "''a reference frame in which a mass point thrown from the same point in three different (non-co-planar) directions follows rectilinear paths each time it is thrown''". In 1902, [[Henri Poincaré]] published a collection of essays titled ''[[Science and Hypothesis]]'', which included: detailed philosophical discussions on the relativity of space, time, and on the conventionality of distant simultaneity; the conjecture that a violation of the relativity principle can never be detected; the possible non-existence of the aether, together with some arguments supporting the aether; and many remarks on non-Euclidean vs. Euclidean geometry.

There were also some attempts to use time as a [[spacetime|fourth dimension]].<ref>Goenner (2008)</ref><ref>Archibald (1914)</ref> This was done as early as 1754 by [[Jean le Rond d'Alembert]] in the [[Encyclopédie]], and by some authors in the 19th century like [[H. G. Wells]] in his novel [[The Time Machine]] (1895). In 1901 a philosophical model was developed by [[Menyhért Palágyi]], in which space and time were only two sides of some sort of "spacetime".<ref>Boyce Gibson (1928)</ref> He used time as an imaginary fourth dimension, which he gave the form <math>\scriptstyle{it}</math> (where <math>\scriptstyle{i=\sqrt{-1}}</math>, i.e. [[imaginary number]]). However, Palagyi's time coordinate is not connected to the speed of light. He also rejected any connection with the existing constructions of ''n''-dimensional spaces and non-Euclidean geometry, so his philosophical model bears only little resemblance with spacetime physics, as it was later developed by Minkowski.<ref>Hentschel (1990), 153f.</ref>

===Light constancy and the principle of relative motion===
[[File:Poincare.jpg|thumb|left|Henri Poincaré]]
In the second half of the 19th century there were many attempts to develop a worldwide clock network synchronized by electrical signals. For that endeavor, the finite propagation speed of light had to be considered, because synchronization signals could travel no faster than the speed of light. So [[Henri Poincaré]] (1898) in his paper [[s:The Measure of Time|The Measure of Time]] drew some important consequences of this process and explained that astronomers, in determining the speed of light, simply assume that light has a constant speed and that this speed is the same in all directions. Without this [[postulate]] it would be impossible to infer the speed of light from astronomical observations, as [[Ole Rømer]] did based on observations of the moons of Jupiter. Poincaré also noted that the propagation speed of light can be (and in practice often is) used to define simultaneity between spatially separate events. He concluded by saying that "''The simultaneity of two events, or the order of their succession, the equality of two durations, are to be so defined that the enunciation of the natural laws may be as simple as possible. In other words, all these rules, all these definitions are only the fruit of an unconscious opportunism.''"<ref>Galison (2003)</ref>

In some other papers, Poincaré (1895, 1900b) argued that experiments like that of Michelson–Morley show the impossibility of detecting the absolute motion of matter, i.e., the relative motion of matter in relation to the aether. He called this the "principle of relative motion".<ref>Katzir (2005), 272–275</ref> In the same year he interpreted Lorentz's local time as the result of a [[Einstein synchronisation|synchronization procedure based on light signals]]. He assumed that 2 observers A and B, which are moving in the aether, synchronize their clocks by optical signals. Since they believe themselves to be at rest, they must consider only the transmission time of the signals and then cross-reference their observations to examine whether their clocks are synchronous. However, from the point of view of an observer at rest in the aether, the clocks are not synchronous and indicate the local time <math>\scriptstyle{t'=t-{vx}/{c^2}}</math>. But because the moving observers do not know anything about their movement, they do not recognize this. So, contrary to Lorentz, Poincaré-defined local time can be measured and indicated by clocks.<ref>Darrigol (2005), 10–11</ref> Therefore, in his recommendation of Lorentz for the Nobel Prize in 1902, Poincaré argued that Lorentz has convincingly explained the negative outcome of the aether drift experiments by inventing the "diminished" or "local" time, i.e. a time coordinate in which two events at different places could appear as simultaneous, although they are not simultaneous in reality.<ref>Galison (2002), Ch. 4 – Etherial Time</ref>

Like Poincaré, [[Alfred Bucherer]] (1903) believed in the validity of the relativity principle within the domain of electrodynamics, but contrary to Poincaré, Bucherer even assumed that this implies the nonexistence of the aether. However, the theory that was created by him later in 1906 was incorrect and not self-consistent, and the Lorentz transformation was absent within his theory as well.<ref>Darrigol (2000), 369–372</ref>

===Lorentz's 1904 model===
{{anchor|Lorentz's 1904 model}} 
In his paper [[s:Electromagnetic phenomena|Electromagnetic phenomena in a system moving with any velocity smaller than that of light]], Lorentz (1904) was following the suggestion of Poincaré and attempted to create a formulation of Electrodynamics, which explains the failure of all known aether drift experiments, i.e. the validity of the relativity principle. He tried to prove the applicability of the Lorentz transformation for all orders, although he didn't succeed completely. Like Wien and Abraham, he argued that there exists only electromagnetic mass, not mechanical mass, and derived the correct expression for longitudinal and [[transverse mass]], which were in agreement with Kaufmann's experiments (even though those experiments were not precise enough to distinguish between the theories of Lorentz and Abraham). And using the electromagnetic momentum, he could explain the negative result of the [[Trouton–Noble experiment]], in which a charged parallel-plate capacitor moving through the aether should orient itself perpendicular to the motion. Also the [[experiments of Rayleigh and Brace]] could be explained. Another important step was the postulate that the Lorentz transformation has to be valid for non-electrical forces as well.<ref>Janssen (1995), Ch. 3.3, 3.4</ref>

At the same time, when Lorentz worked out his theory, Wien (1903) recognized an important consequence of the velocity dependence of mass. He argued that superluminal velocities were impossible, because that would require an infinite amount of energy — the same was already noted by Thomson (1893) and Searle (1897). And in June 1904, after he had read Lorentz's 1904 paper, he noticed the same in relation to length contraction, because at superluminal velocities the factor <math>\scriptstyle{\sqrt{1-{v^2}/{c^2}}}</math> becomes imaginary.<ref>Miller (1981), Chap. 1, Footnote 57</ref>

Lorentz's theory was criticized by Abraham, who demonstrated that on one side the theory obeys the relativity principle, and on the other side the electromagnetic origin of all forces is assumed. Abraham showed, that both assumptions were incompatible, because in Lorentz's theory of the contracted electrons, non-electric forces were needed in order to guarantee the stability of matter. However, in Abraham's theory of the rigid electron, no such forces were needed. Thus the question arose whether the Electromagnetic conception of the world (compatible with Abraham's theory) or the Relativity Principle (compatible with Lorentz's Theory) was correct.<ref>Miller (1981), 75ff</ref>

In a September 1904 lecture in [[St. Louis]] named [[s:The Principles of Mathematical Physics|The Principles of Mathematical Physics]], Poincaré drew some consequences from Lorentz's theory and defined (in modification of Galileo's Relativity Principle and Lorentz's Theorem of Corresponding States) the following principle: "''The Principle of Relativity, according to which the laws of physical phenomena must be the same for a stationary observer as for one carried along in a uniform motion of translation, so that we have no means, and can have none, of determining whether or not we are being carried along in such a motion.''" He also specified his clock synchronization method and explained the possibility of a "new method" or "new mechanics", in which no velocity can surpass that of light for ''all'' observers. However, he critically noted that the Relativity Principle, Newton's action and reaction, the [[conservation of mass]], and the [[conservation of energy]] are not fully established and are even threatened by some experiments.<ref>Katzir (2005), 275–277</ref>

Also [[Emil Cohn]] (1904) continued to develop his alternative model (as described above), and while comparing his theory with that of Lorentz, he discovered some important physical interpretations of the Lorentz transformations. He illustrated (like Joseph Larmor in the same year) this transformation by using rods and clocks: If they are at rest in the aether, they indicate the true length and time, and if they are moving, they indicate contracted and dilated values. Like Poincaré, Cohn defined local time as the time that is based on the assumption of isotropic propagation of light. Contrary to Lorentz and Poincaré it was noticed by Cohn, that within Lorentz's theory the separation of "real" and "apparent" coordinates is artificial, because no experiment can distinguish between them. Yet according to Cohn's own theory, the Lorentz transformed quantities would only be valid for optical phenomena, while mechanical clocks would indicate the "real" time.<ref name="Janssen/Stachel 2004, 31-32"/>

===Poincaré's dynamics of the electron===
{{anchor|Poincaré's dynamics of the electron}} 
On June 5, 1905, [[Henri Poincaré]] submitted the summary of a work which closed the existing gaps of Lorentz's work. (This short paper contained the results of a more complete work which would be published later, in January 1906.) He showed that Lorentz's equations of electrodynamics were not fully Lorentz-covariant. So he pointed out the [[group (mathematics)|group]] characteristics of the transformation, and he corrected Lorentz's formulas for the transformations of [[charge density]] and current density (which implicitly contained the relativistic [[velocity-addition formula]], which he elaborated in May in a letter to Lorentz). Poincaré used for the first time the term "Lorentz transformation", and he gave the transformations their symmetrical form used to this day. He introduced a non-electrical binding force (the so-called "Poincaré stresses") to ensure the stability of the electrons and to explain length contraction. He also sketched a Lorentz-invariant model of gravitation (including gravitational waves) by extending the validity of Lorentz-invariance to non-electrical forces.<ref>Miller (1981), 79–86</ref><ref>Katzir (2005), 280–288</ref>

Eventually Poincaré (independently of Einstein) finished a substantially extended work of his June paper (the so-called "Palermo paper", received July 23, printed December 14, published January 1906 ). He spoke literally of "the postulate of relativity". He showed that the transformations are a consequence of the [[principle of least action]] and developed the properties of the Poincaré stresses. He demonstrated in more detail the group characteristics of the transformation, which he called the [[Lorentz group]], and he showed that the combination <math>\scriptstyle{x^2+y^2+z^2-c^2t^2}</math> is invariant. While elaborating his gravitational theory, he said the Lorentz transformation is merely a rotation in four-dimensional space about the origin, by introducing <math>\scriptstyle{ct\sqrt{-1}}</math> as a fourth imaginary coordinate (contrary to Palagyi, he included the speed of light), and he already used [[four-vector]]s. He wrote that the discovery of magneto-[[cathode ray]]s by [[Paul Ulrich Villard]] (1904) seemed to threaten the entire theory of Lorentz, but this problem was quickly solved.<ref name=waltc>Walter (2007), Ch. 1</ref> However, although in his philosophical writings Poincaré rejected the ideas of absolute space and time, in his physical papers he continued to refer to an (undetectable) aether. He also continued (1900b, 1904, 1906, 1908b) to describe coordinates and phenomena as local/apparent (for moving observers) and true/real (for observers at rest in the aether).<ref name="Galison 2002"/><ref>Miller (1981), 216–217</ref> So, with a few exceptions,<ref>Whittaker (1953), 27–77</ref><ref>Zahar (1989), 149–200</ref><ref>Logunov (2004)</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Messager|first=V. |author2=R. Gilmore |author3=C. Letellier|title=Henri Poincaré and the principle of relativity|journal=Contemporary Physics|year=2012|volume=53|issue=5|pages=397–415|url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00107514.2012.721300|bibcode = 2012ConPh..53..397M |doi = 10.1080/00107514.2012.721300 }}</ref> most historians of science argue that Poincaré did not invent what is now called special relativity, although it is admitted that Poincaré anticipated much of Einstein's methods and terminology.<ref>Holton (1973/1988), 196–206</ref><ref name="Miller 1981">Miller (1981)</ref><ref>Pais (1982), 126–128</ref><ref>Hentschel (1990), 3–13</ref><ref name="Darrigol 2005, 15-18">Darrigol (2005), 15–18</ref><ref>Katzir (2005), 286–288</ref>

==Special relativity==

===Einstein 1905===

====Electrodynamics of moving bodies====
[[File:Einstein1921 by F Schmutzer 4.jpg|thumb|right|Albert Einstein, 1921]]
On September 26, 1905 (received June 30), Albert Einstein published his paper on what is now called ''special relativity''. Einstein's paper includes his fundamental new definition of space and time in which all time and space coordinates in all reference frames are alleged to be on an equal footing, so there is no physical basis for distinguishing "true" from "apparent" time and would, therefore, makes the aether an unnecessary concept, at least in regard to inertial motion. Einstein assumed two fundamental principles, the [[principle of relativity]] and the ''principle of the constancy of light'' (''light principle''), which ostensibly served as the axiomatic basis of his theory. To better understand Einstein's step, a summary of the situation before 1905, as it was described above, shall be given<ref>Whittaker (1951)</ref> (it must be remarked that Einstein was familiar with the 1895 theory of Lorentz, and ''[[Science and Hypothesis]]'' by Poincaré, but not their papers of 1904-1905):

:''a'') Maxwell's electrodynamics, as presented by Lorentz in 1895, was the most successful theory at this time. Here, the speed of light is constant in all directions in the stationary aether and completely independent of the velocity of the source;
:''b'') The inability to find an absolute state of motion, ''i.e.'' the validity of the relativity principle as the consequence of the negative results of all aether drift experiments and effects like the [[moving magnet and conductor problem]] which only depend on relative motion;
:''c'') The [[Fizeau experiment]];
:''d'') The [[aberration of light]];

with the following consequences for the speed of light and the theories known at that time:

#The speed of light is not composed of the speed of light in vacuum and the velocity of a preferred frame of reference, by ''b''.
#The speed of light is not composed of the speed of light in vacuum and the velocity of the light source, by ''a'' and ''c''. This contradicts the [[emission theory]].
#The speed of light is not composed of the speed of light in vacuum and the velocity of an aether that would be dragged within or in the vicinity of matter, by ''a, c'', and ''d''. This contradicts the hypothesis of the [[aether drag hypothesis|complete aether drag]].
#The speed of light in moving media is not composed of the speed of light when the medium is at rest and the velocity of the medium, but is determined by Fresnel's dragging coefficient, by ''c''.<ref group=W>For many other experiments on light constancy and relativity, see PhysicsFaq: [http://math.ucr.edu/home/baez/physics/Relativity/SR/experiments.html What is the experimental basis of special relativity?]</ref>

In order to make the principle of relativity as required by Poincaré an exact law of nature in the immobile aether theory of Lorentz, the introduction of a variety of allegedly [[Ad hoc hypothesis|ad hoc hypotheses]] was required, such as the contraction hypothesis, local time, the Poincaré stresses, etc.. This method was criticized by many scholars, since the assumption of those effects which completely prevent the discovery of the aether drift is alleged to be very improbable, and it would violate [[Occam's razor]].<ref name="Miller 1982"/><ref name=holt>Holton (1988)</ref><ref name="Pais 1982">Pais (1982)</ref><ref name="Jannssen 1995">Jannssen (1995)</ref> On the other hand, those effects were conceived in response to the empirical data shown abve.

Einstein is considered the first who completely dispensed with those auxiliary hypotheses and drew the direct conclusions from the conclusions stated above:<ref name="Miller 1982"/><ref name=holt>Holton (1988)</ref><ref name="Pais 1982"/><ref name="Jannssen 1995"/> that the relativity principle is correct and the directly observed speed of light is the same in all inertial reference frames. Based on these assumptions, Einstein was able to derive ''all results'' obtained by his predecessors – and in addition the formulas for the [[relativistic Doppler effect]] and [[relativistic aberration]] – in a few pages, while prior to 1905 his competitors had devoted years of long, complicated work to arrive at the base of knowledge used by Einstein. Before 1905 Lorentz and Poincaré had adopted these same principles, as necessary to achieve their final results, but didn't recognize that they were also sufficient in order to arrive at the original Lorentz transformations with their Lorentzian physical interpretation.<ref name="Darrigol 2005, 15-18"/><ref name=Jannn>Janssen (1995), Ch. 4</ref> One reason for Einstein's early rejection of the aether in any form (which he later partially retracted) may have been related to his work on [[quantum physics]]. Einstein discovered that light can also be described (at least heuristically) as a kind of particle, so the aether as the medium for electromagnetic "waves" (which was highly important for Lorentz and Poincaré) no longer fitted into his conceptual scheme.<ref>Rynasiewicz/Renn (2006)</ref>

It's notable that Einstein's paper contains no direct references to other papers. However, many historians of science like Holton,<ref name=holt /> Miller,<ref name="Miller 1981"/> Stachel,<ref name=stach>Stachel (1982)</ref> have tried to find out possible influences on Einstein. He stated that his thinking was influenced by the [[Empiricism|empiricist]] philosophers [[David Hume]] and [[Ernst Mach]]. Regarding the Relativity Principle, the [[moving magnet and conductor problem]] (possibly after reading a book of [[August Föppl]]) and the various negative aether drift experiments were important for him to accept that principle — but he denied any significant influence of the ''most important'' experiment: the Michelson–Morley experiment.<ref name=stach /> Other likely influences include Poincaré's ''[[Science and Hypothesis]]'', where Poincaré presented the Principle of Relativity (which, as has been reported by Einstein's friend Maurice Solovine, was closely studied and discussed by Einstein and his friends over a period of years before the publication of Einstein's 1905 paper),<ref>Darrigol (2004), 624</ref> and the writings of [[Max Abraham]], from whom he borrowed the terms "Maxwell-Hertz equations" and "longitudinal and transverse mass".<ref>Miller (1981), 86–92</ref>

Regarding his views on Electrodynamics and the Principle of the Constancy of Light, Einstein stated that Lorentz's theory of 1895 (or the Maxwell-Lorentz electrodynamics) and also the [[Fizeau experiment]] had considerable influence on his thinking. He said in 1909 and 1912 that he borrowed that principle from Lorentz's stationary aether (which implies validity of Maxwell's equations and the constancy of light in the aether frame), but he recognized that this principle together with the principle of relativity makes any reference to an aether unnecessary (at least as to the description of electrodynamics in inertial frames).<ref name=seelig>Born (1956), 193</ref> As he wrote in 1907 and in later papers, the apparent contradiction between those principles can be resolved if it is admitted that Lorentz's local time is not an auxiliary quantity, but can simply be defined as ''time'' and is connected with [[signal velocity]]. Before Einstein, Poincaré also developed a similar physical interpretation of local time and noticed the connection with signal velocity, but contrary to Einstein he continued to argue that clocks at rest in the stationary aether show the true time, while clocks in inertial motion relative to the aether show only the apparent time. Eventually, near the end of his life in 1953 Einstein described the advantages of his theory over that of Lorentz as follows (although Poincaré had already stated in 1905 that Lorentz invariance is an exact condition for any physical theory):<ref name=seelig />

{{cquote|There is no doubt, that the special theory of relativity, if we regard its development in retrospect, was ripe for discovery in 1905. Lorentz had already recognized that the transformations named after him are essential for the analysis of Maxwell's equations, and Poincaré deepened this insight still further. Concerning myself, I knew only Lorentz's important work of 1895 [...] but not Lorentz's later work, nor the consecutive investigations by Poincaré. In this sense my work of 1905 was independent. [..] The new feature of it was the realization of the fact that the bearing of the Lorentz transformation transcended its connection with Maxwell's equations and was concerned with the nature of space and time in general. A further new result was that the "Lorentz invariance" is a general condition for any physical theory. This was for me of particular importance because I had already previously found that Maxwell's theory did not account for the micro-structure of radiation and could therefore have no general validity.}}

====Mass-energy equivalence====
{{Main|Mass–energy equivalence#History}}
Already in §10 of his paper on electrodynamics, Einstein used the formula
:<math>E_{kin}=mc^2\left(\frac1{\sqrt{1-\frac{v^2} {c^2}}}-1\right)</math>
for the kinetic energy of an electron. In elaboration of this he published a paper (received September 27, November 1905), in which Einstein showed that when a material body lost energy (either radiation or heat) of amount ''E'', its mass decreased by the amount ''E'' /''c''2. This led to the famous [[mass–energy equivalence]] formula: ''E'' = ''mc''2. Einstein considered the equivalency equation to be of paramount importance because it showed that a massive particle possesses an energy, the "rest energy", distinct from its classical kinetic and potential energies.<ref name="Darrigol 2005, 18-21"/> As it was shown above, many authors before Einstein arrived at similar formulas (including a 4/3-factor) for the relation of mass to energy. However, their work was focused on electromagnetic energy which (as we know today) only represents a small part of the entire energy within matter. So it was Einstein who was the first to: (a) ascribe this relation to all forms of energy, and (b) understand the connection of Mass-energy equivalence with the relativity principle.

===Early reception===

====First assessments====
[[Walter Kaufmann (physicist)|Walter Kaufmann]] (1905, 1906) was probably the first who referred to Einstein's work. He compared the theories of Lorentz and Einstein and, although he said Einstein's method is to be preferred, he argued that both theories are observationally equivalent. Therefore, he spoke of the relativity principle as the "Lorentz-Einsteinian" basic assumption.<ref name="Miller 1981, 334-352">Miller (1981), 334–352</ref> Shortly afterwards, [[Max Planck]] (1906a) was the first who publicly defended the theory and interested his students, [[Max von Laue]] and [[Kurd von Mosengeil]], in this formulation. He described Einstein's theory as a "generalization" of Lorentz's theory and, to this "Lorentz-Einstein-Theory", he gave the name "relative theory"; while [[Alfred Bucherer]] changed Planck's nomenclature into the now common "theory of relativity". On the other hand, Einstein himself and many others continued to refer simply to the new method as the "relativity principle". And in an important overview article on the relativity principle (1908a), Einstein described SR as a "union of Lorentz's theory and the relativity principle", including the fundamental assumption that Lorentz's local time can be described as real time. (Yet, Poincaré's contributions were rarely mentioned in the first years after 1905.) All of those expressions, (Lorentz-Einstein theory, relativity principle, relativity theory) were used by different physicists alternately in the next years.<ref>Miller (1981), 88</ref>

====Kaufmann-Bucherer experiments====
Kaufmann (1905, 1906) announced the results of his new experiments on the charge to mass ratio, i.e. the velocity dependence of mass. They represented, in his opinion, a clear refutation of the relativity principle and the Lorentz-Einstein-Theory, and a confirmation of Abraham's theory. For some years Kaufmann's experiments represented a weighty objection against the relativity principle, although it was criticized by Planck and [[Adolf Bestelmeyer]] (1906). Following Kaufmann other physicists, like [[Alfred Bucherer]] (1908) and [[Günther Neumann]] (1914), also examined the velocity-dependence of mass and this time it was thought that the "Lorentz-Einstein theory" and the relativity principle were confirmed, and Abraham's theory disproved. However, it was later pointed out that the [[Kaufmann–Bucherer–Neumann experiments]] only showed a qualitative mass increase of moving electrons, but they were not precise enough to distinguish between the models of Lorentz-Einstein and Abraham. So it continued until 1940, when experiments of this kind were repeated with sufficient accuracy for confirming the Lorentz-Einstein formula.<ref name="Miller 1981, 334-352"/>
However, this problem occurred only with this kind of experiment. The investigations of the [[fine structure]] of the [[Balmer series|hydrogen lines]] already in 1917 provided a clear confirmation of the Lorentz-Einstein formula and the refutation of Abraham's theory.<ref>Pauli (1921), 636–637</ref>

====Relativistic momentum and mass====
[[File:Max planck.jpg|thumb|left|Max Planck]]
Planck (1906a) defined the relativistic [[momentum]] and gave the correct values for the longitudinal and transverse mass by correcting a slight mistake of the expression given by Einstein in 1905. Planck's expressions were in principle equivalent to those used by Lorentz in 1899.<ref>Miller (1981), 329–330</ref> Based on the work of Planck, the concept of [[relativistic mass]] was developed by [[Gilbert Newton Lewis]] and [[Richard C. Tolman]] (1908, 1909) by defining mass as the ratio of momentum to velocity. So the older definition of longitudinal and transverse mass, in which mass was defined as the ratio of force to acceleration, became superfluous. Finally, Tolman (1912) interpreted relativistic mass simply as ''the'' mass of the body.<ref>Pauli (1921), 634–636</ref> However, many modern textbooks on relativity don't use the concept of relativistic mass anymore, and [[mass in special relativity]] is considered as an invariant quantity.

====Mass and energy====
Einstein (1906) showed that the inertia of energy (mass-energy-equivalence) is a necessary and sufficient condition for the conservation of the [[center of mass]] theorem. On that occasion, he noted that the formal mathematical content of Poincaré paper on the center of mass (1900b) and his own paper were mainly the same, although the physical interpretation was different in light of relativity.<ref name="Darrigol 2005, 18-21"/>

[[Kurd von Mosengeil]] (1906) by extending Hasenöhrl's calculation of black-body-radiation in a cavity, derived the same expression for the additional mass of a body due to electromagnetic radiation as Hasenöhrl. Hasenöhrl's idea was that the mass of bodies included a contribution from the electromagnetic field, he imagined a body as a cavity containing light. His relationship between mass and energy, like all other pre-Einstein ones, contained incorrect numerical prefactors (see [[#Electromagnetic mass|Electromagnetic mass]]). Eventually Planck (1907) derived the mass-energy-equivalence in general within the framework of [[special relativity]], including the binding forces within matter. He acknowledged the priority of Einstein's 1905 work on <math>E=mc^2</math>, but Planck judged his own approach as more general than Einstein's.<ref>Miller (1981), 359–367</ref>

====Experiments by Fizeau and Sagnac====
As was explained above, already in 1895 Lorentz succeeded in deriving Fresnel's dragging coefficient (to first order of v/c) and the [[Fizeau experiment]] by using the electromagnetic theory and the concept of local time. After first attempts by [[Jakob Laub]] (1907) to create a relativistic "optics of moving bodies", it was [[Max von Laue]] (1907) who derived the coefficient for terms of all orders by using the colinear case of the relativistic velocity addition law. In addition, Laue's calculation was much simpler than the complicated methods used by Lorentz.<ref name="Janssen 1995, Ch. 3.1"/>

In 1911 Laue also discussed a situation where on a platform a beam of light is split and the two beams are made to follow a trajectory in opposite directions. On return to the point of entry the light is allowed to exit the platform in such a way that an interference pattern is obtained. Laue calculated a displacement of the interference pattern if the platform is in rotation – because the speed of light is independent of the velocity of the source, so one beam has covered less distance than the other beam. An experiment of this kind was performed by [[Georges Sagnac]] in 1913, who actually measured a displacement of the interference pattern ([[Sagnac effect]]). While Sagnac himself concluded that his theory confirmed the theory of an aether at rest, Laue's earlier calculation showed that it is compatible with special relativity as well because in ''both'' theories the speed of light is independent of the velocity of the source. This effect can be understood as the electromagnetic counterpart of the mechanics of rotation, for example in analogy to a [[Foucault pendulum]].<ref>Laue (1921), pp. 25 & 146–148</ref> Already in 1909–11, Franz Harress (1912) performed an experiment which can be considered as a synthesis of the experiments of Fizeau and Sagnac. He tried to measure the dragging coefficient within glass. Contrary to Fizeau he used a rotating device so he found the same effect as Sagnac. While Harress himself misunderstood the meaning of the result, it was shown by Laue that the theoretical explanation of Harress' experiment is in accordance with the Sagnac effect.<ref>Laue (1921), pp. 25–26 & 204–206</ref> Eventually, the [[Michelson–Gale–Pearson experiment]] (1925, a variation of the Sagnac experiment) indicated the angular velocity of the Earth itself in accordance with special relativity and a resting aether.

====Relativity of simultaneity====
The first derivations of relativity of simultaneity by synchronization with light signals were also simplified.<ref>Bjerknes (2002)</ref> [[Daniel Frost Comstock]] (1910) placed an observer in the middle between two clocks A and B. From this observer a signal is sent to both clocks, and in the frame in which A and B are at rest, they synchronously start to run. But from the perspective of a system in which A and B are moving, clock B is first set in motion, and then comes clock A – so the clocks are not synchronized. Also Einstein (1917) created a model with an observer in the middle between A and B. However, in his description two signals are sent ''from'' A and B to the observer. From the perspective of the frame in which A and B are at rest, the signals are sent at the same time and the observer "''is hastening towards the beam of light coming from B, whilst he is riding on ahead of the beam of light coming from A. Hence the observer will see the beam of light emitted from B earlier than he will see that emitted from A. Observers who take the railway train as their reference-body must therefore come to the conclusion that the lightning flash B took place earlier than the lightning flash A.''"

===Spacetime physics===

====Minkowski's spacetime====
[[File:De Raum zeit Minkowski Bild.jpg|thumb|right|Hermann Minkowski]]
Poincaré's attempt of a four-dimensional reformulation of the new mechanics was not continued by himself,<ref name=waltc /> so it was [[Hermann Minkowski]] (1907), who worked out the consequences of that notion (other contributions were made by [[Roberto Marcolongo]] (1906) and [[Richard Hargreaves]] (1908)<ref name="Walter 1999a, 49">Walter (1999a), 49</ref>). This was based on the work of many mathematicians of the 19th century like [[Arthur Cayley]], [[Felix Klein]], or [[William Kingdon Clifford]], who contributed to [[group theory]], [[invariant theory]] and [[projective geometry]].<ref>Klein (1910)</ref> Using similar methods, Minkowski succeeded in formulating a geometrical interpretation of the Lorentz transformation. He completed, for example, the concept of [[four vector]]s; he created the [[Minkowski diagram]] for the depiction of space-time; he was the first to use expressions like [[world line]], [[proper time]], [[Lorentz covariance|Lorentz invariance/covariance]], etc.; and most notably he presented a four-dimensional formulation of electrodynamics. Similar to Poincaré he tried to formulate a Lorentz-invariant law of gravity, but that work was subsequently superseded by Einstein's elaborations on gravitation.

In 1907 Minkowski named four predecessors who contributed to the formulation of the relativity principle: Lorentz, Einstein, Poincaré and Planck. And in his famous lecture [[:s:de:Raum und Zeit (Minkowski)|Space and Time]] (1908) he mentioned Voigt, Lorentz and Einstein. Minkowski himself considered Einstein's theory as a generalization of Lorentz's and credited Einstein for completely stating the relativity of time, but he criticized his predecessors for not fully developing the relativity of space. However, modern historians of science argue that Minkowski's claim for priority was unjustified, because Minkowski (like Wien or Abraham) adhered to the electromagnetic world-picture and apparently didn't fully understand the difference between Lorentz's electron theory and Einstein's kinematics.<ref>Miller (1981), Ch. 7.4.6</ref><ref name=walta>Walter (1999b), Ch. 3</ref> In 1908, Einstein and Laub rejected the four-dimensional electrodynamics of Minkowski as overly complicated "learned superfluousness" and published a "more elementary", non-four-dimensional derivation of the basic-equations for moving bodies. But it was Minkowski's geometric model that (a) showed that the special relativity is a complete and internally self-consistent theory, (b) added the Lorentz invariant proper time interval (which accounts for the actual readings shown by moving clocks), and (c) served as a basis for further development of relativity.<ref name="Walter 1999a, 49"/> Eventually, Einstein (1912) recognized the importance of Minkowski's geometric spacetime model and used it as the basis for his work on the foundations of [[general relativity]].

Today special relativity is seen as an application of [[linear algebra]], but at the time special relativity was being developed the field of linear algebra was still in its infancy. There were no textbooks on linear algebra as modern vector space and transformation theory, and the matrix notation of [[Arthur Cayley]] (that unifies the subject) had not yet come into widespread use. Cayley's matrix calculus notation was used by Minkowski (1908) in formulating relativistic electrodynamics, even though it was later replaced by Sommerfeld using vector notation.<ref>Walter (1999a), p. 49 and p. 71.</ref> According to a recent source the Lorentz transformations are equivalent to [[hyperbolic rotation]]s.<ref>{{cite book |title=Geometry of Minkowski Space-Time |first1=Francesco |last1=Catoni |first2=Dino |last2=Boccaletti |first3=Roberto |last3=Cannata |first4=Vincenzo |last4=Catoni |first5=Paolo |last5=Zampetti |publisher=Springer |year=2011 |isbn=3642179770 |page=18 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=D0ZNeglhosYC}} [https://books.google.com/books?id=D0ZNeglhosYC&pg=PA18 Extract of page 18]</ref> However Varicak (1910) had shown that the standard Lorentz transformation is a translation in hyperbolic space <ref>Phys. Z. 11 1910 section 2 [http://en.wikisource.org wiki/Translation:The_Theory_of_Relativity_and_Lobachevskian_Geometry] The proof consists in showing that the Lorentz transformation takes Galilean form when written in Lobachevski coordinates. </ref>

====Vector notation and closed systems====
Minkowski's space-time formalism was quickly accepted and further developed.<ref name=walta /> For example, [[Arnold Sommerfeld]] (1910) replaced Minkowski's matrix notation by an elegant vector notation and coined the terms "four vector" and "six vector". He also introduced a [[Trigonometry|trigonometric]] formulation of the relativistic velocity addition rule, which according to Sommerfeld, removes much of the strangeness of that concept. Other important contributions were made by Laue (1911, 1913), who used the spacetime formalism to create a relativistic theory of deformable bodies and an elementary particle theory.<ref>Miller (1981), Ch. 12.5.8</ref><ref>Janssen/Mecklenburg (2007)</ref> He extended Minkowski's expressions for electromagnetic processes to all possible forces and thereby clarified the concept of mass-energy-equivalence. Laue also showed that non-electrical forces are needed to ensure the proper Lorentz transformation properties, and for the stability of matter – he could show that the "Poincaré stresses" (as mentioned above) are a natural consequence of relativity theory so that the electron can be a closed system.

====Lorentz transformation without second postulate====
There were some attempts to derive the Lorentz transformation without the postulate of the constancy of the speed of light. [[Vladimir Ignatowski]] (1910) for example used for this purpose (a) the principle of relativity, (b) homogeneity and isotropy of space, and (c) the requirement of reciprocity. [[Philipp Frank]] and [[Hermann Rothe]] (1911) argued that this derivation is incomplete and needs additional assumptions. Their own calculation was based on the assumptions that: (a) the Lorentz transformation forms a homogeneous linear group, (b) when changing frames, only the sign of the relative speed changes, (c) length contraction solely depends on the relative speed. However, according to Pauli and Miller such models were insufficient to identify the invariant speed in their transformation with the speed of light — for example, Ignatowski was forced to seek recourse in electrodynamics to include the speed of light. So Pauli and others argued that both [[Postulates of special relativity|postulates]] are needed to derive the Lorentz transformation.<ref>Pauli (1921), 555–556</ref><ref>Miller (1981), 218–219</ref> However, until today, others continued the attempts to derive special relativity without the light postulate.

====Non-euclidean formulations without imaginary time coordinate====
Minkowski in his earlier work in 1907 followed Poincaré in representing space and time together in complex form (x,y,z,ict) emphasizing the formal similarity with Euclidean space. He noted that space-time is in a certain sense a four-dimensional non-Euclidean manifold.<ref>Goettingen lecture 1907, see comments in Walter 1999</ref> Sommerfeld (1910) used Minkowski's complex representation to combine non-collinear velocities by spherical geometry and so derive Einstein's addition formula. Subsequent writers,<ref>Walter (1999b)</ref> principally [[Vladimir Varićak|Varićak]], dispensed with the imaginary time coordinate, and wrote in explicitly non-Euclidean (i.e. Lobachevskian) form reformulating relativity using the concept of [[rapidity]] previously introduced by [[Alfred Robb]] (1911); [[Edwin Bidwell Wilson]] and [[Gilbert N. Lewis]] (1912) introduced a vector notation for spacetime; [[Émile Borel]] (1913) showed how parallel transport in non-Euclidean space provides the kinematic basis of [[Thomas precession]] twelve years before its experimental discovery by Thomas; [[Felix Klein]] (1910) and [[Ludwik Silberstein]] (1914) employed such methods as well. One historian argues that the non-Euclidean style had little to show "in the way of creative power of discovery", but it offered notational advantages in some cases, particularly in the law of velocity addition.<ref name=euclid /> (So in the years before [[World War I]], the acceptance of the non-Euclidean style was approximately equal to that of the initial spacetime formalism, and it continued to be employed in relativity textbooks of the 20th century.<ref name=euclid>Walter (1999b), p. 23.</ref> 1

====Time dilation and twin paradox====
Einstein (1907a) proposed a method for detecting the [[transverse Doppler effect]] as a direct consequence of time dilation. And in fact, that effect was measured in 1938 by [[Herbert E. Ives]] and G. R. Stilwell ([[Ives–Stilwell experiment]]).<ref>Miller (1981), 245–253</ref> And Lewis and Tolman (1909) described the reciprocity of [[time dilation]] by using two light clocks A and B, traveling with a certain relative velocity to each other. The clocks consist of two plane mirrors parallel to one another and to the line of motion. Between the mirrors a light signal is bouncing, and for the observer resting in the same reference frame as A, the period of clock A is the distance between the mirrors divided by the speed of light. But if the observer looks at clock B, he sees that within that clock the signal traces out a longer, angled path, thus clock B is slower than A. However, for the observer moving alongside with B the situation is completely in reverse: Clock B is faster and A is slower. Also Lorentz (1910–1912) discussed the reciprocity of time dilation and analyzed a clock "paradox", which apparently occurs as a consequence of the reciprocity of time dilation. Lorentz showed that there is no paradox if one considers that in one system only one clock is used, while in the other system two clocks are necessary, and the relativity of simultaneity is fully taken into account.

[[File:Max von Laue.jpg|thumb|left|Max von Laue]] A similar situation was created by [[Paul Langevin]] in 1911 with what was later called the "[[twin paradox]]", where he replaced the clocks by persons (Langevin never used the word "twins" but his description contained all other features of the paradox). Langevin tried to solve the paradox by alluding to the fact that one twin accelerates and changes direction, so the symmetry is broken and the accelerated twin is younger. However, this attempt has been shown to fail (see [[Twin paradox]] section 3) for multiple obvious reasons. Further, Langevin himself interpreted even his failed solution as a hint as to the existence of an aether. Laue (1913) pointed out that any acceleration can be made arbitrarily small in relation to the inertial motion of the twin, and that the real explanation is that one twin is at rest in two different inertial frames during his journey, while the other twin is at rest in a single inertial frame. However, this explanation was also seen as being obviously flawed and further, if true, would render special relativity worthless as it means that special relativity cannot be applied by any observer or to any instrument that has or will experience acceleration. Laue was the first to analyze the situation based on Minkowski's spacetime model for special relativity – showing how the world lines of inertially moving bodies maximize the proper time elapsed between two events.<ref>Miller (1981), 257–264</ref>. However, when looked at from the frame of the traveling twin in the outbound leg plus the frame of traveling twin in the inbound leg a contradictory conclusion results.[[User:NickPercival|NickPercival]] ([[User talk:NickPercival|talk]]) 10:50, 14 July 2017 (PDT)

====Acceleration====
Einstein (1908) tried – as a preliminary in the framework of special relativity – also to include accelerated frames within the relativity principle. In the course of this attempt he recognized that for any single moment of acceleration of a body one can define an inertial reference frame in which the accelerated body is temporarily at rest. It follows that in accelerated frames defined in this way, the application of the constancy of the speed of light to define simultaneity is restricted to small localities. However, the [[equivalence principle]] that was used by Einstein in the course of that investigation, which expresses the equality of inertial and gravitational mass and the equivalence of accelerated frames and homogeneous gravitational fields, transcended the limits of special relativity and resulted in the formulation of general relativity.<ref>Pais (2000), pp. 177-183</ref>

Nearly simultaneously with Einstein, also Minkowski (1908) considered the special case of uniform accelerations within the framework of his space-time formalism. He recognized that the world-line of such an accelerated body corresponds to a [[hyperbola]]. This notion was further developed by Born (1909) and Sommerfeld (1910), with Born introducing the expression "[[Hyperbolic motion (relativity)|hyperbolic motion]]". He noted that uniform acceleration can be used as an approximation for any form of [[Acceleration (special relativity)|acceleration within special relativity]].<ref>Pauli (1921), 626-628</ref> In addition, [[Harry Bateman]] and [[Ebenezer Cunningham]] (1910) showed that Maxwell's equations are invariant under a much wider group of transformation than the Lorentz-group, i.e., the [[spherical wave transformation]]s, being a form of [[Conformal map|conformal transformations]]. Under those transformations the equations preserve their form for some types of accelerated motions.<ref>Warwick (2003)</ref> A general covariant formulation of electrodynamics in Minkowski space was eventually given by [[Friedrich Kottler]] (1912), whereby his formulation is also valid for general relativity.<ref>Pauli (1921), 704</ref> Concerning the further development of the description of accelerated motion in special relativity, the works by Langevin and others for rotating frames ([[Born coordinates]]), and by [[Wolfgang Rindler]] and others for uniform accelerated frames ([[Rindler coordinates]]) must be mentioned.<ref>Rindler (2001)</ref>

====Rigid bodies and Ehrenfest paradox====
Einstein (1907b) discussed the question of whether, in rigid bodies, as well as in all other cases, the velocity of information can exceed the speed of light, and explained that information could be transmitted under these circumstances into the past, thus causality would be violated. Since this contravenes radically against every experience, superluminal velocities are thought impossible. He added that a dynamics of the [[rigid body]] must be created in the framework of SR. Eventually, [[Max Born]] (1909) in the course of his above-mentioned work concerning accelerated motion, tried to include the concept of rigid bodies into SR. However, [[Paul Ehrenfest]] (1909) showed that Born's concept lead the so-called [[Ehrenfest paradox]], in which, due to length contraction, the circumference of a rotating disk is shortened while the radius stays the same. This question was also considered by [[Gustav Herglotz]] (1910), [[Fritz Noether]] (1910), and von Laue (1911). It was recognized by Laue that the classic concept is not applicable in SR since a "rigid" body possesses infinitely many [[Degrees of freedom (physics and chemistry)|degrees of freedom]]. Yet, while Born's definition was not applicable on rigid bodies, it was very useful in describing rigid ''motions'' of bodies.<ref>Pauli (1921), 690–691</ref> In connection to the Ehrenfest paradox, it was also discussed (by [[Vladimir Varićak]] and others) whether length contraction is "real" or "apparent", and whether there is a difference between the dynamic contraction of Lorentz and the kinematic contraction of Einstein. However, it was rather a dispute over words because, as Einstein said, the kinematic length contraction is "apparent" for a co-moving observer, but for an observer at rest it is "real" and the consequences are measurable.<ref>Pauli (1921), 556–557</ref>

====Acceptance of special relativity====
Planck, in 1909, compared the implications of the modern relativity principle — he particularly referred to the relativity of time – with the revolution by the Copernican system.<ref>Pais (1982), 11a</ref> An important factor in the adoption of special relativity by physicists was its development by Minkowski into a spacetime theory.<ref name=walta /> Consequently, by about 1911, most theoretical physicists accepted special relativity.<ref name="Miller 1981, Ch. 7.4.12">Miller (1981), Ch. 7.4.12</ref><ref>Walter (1999), Ch. 3</ref> In 1912 [[Wilhelm Wien]] recommended both Lorentz (for the mathematical framework) and Einstein (for reducing it to a simple principle) for the [[Nobel Prize in Physics]] – although it was decided by the Nobel committee not to award the prize for special relativity.<ref>Pais (1982), 7c</ref> Only a minority of theoretical physicists such as Abraham, Lorentz, Poincaré, or Langevin still believed in the existence of an aether.<ref name="Miller 1981, Ch. 7.4.12"/> Einstein [[Luminiferous aether#Einstein's views on the aether|later (1918–1920)]] qualified his position by arguing that one can speak about a relativistic aether, but the "idea of motion" cannot be applied to it.<ref>Kostro (1992)</ref> Lorentz and Poincaré had always argued that motion through the aether was undetectable. Einstein used the expression "special theory of relativity" in 1915, to distinguish it from general relativity.

===Relativistic theories===

====Gravitation====
The first attempt to formulate a relativistic theory of gravitation was undertaken by Poincaré (1905). He tried to modify Newton's law of gravitation so that it assumes a Lorentz-covariant form. He noted that there were many possibilities for a relativistic law, and he discussed two of them. It was shown by Poincaré that the argument of [[Pierre-Simon Laplace]], who argued that the [[speed of gravity]] is many times faster than the speed of light, is not valid within a relativistic theory. That is, in a relativistic theory of gravitation, planetary orbits are stable even when the speed of gravity is equal to that of light. Similar models to that of Poincaré were discussed by Minkowski (1907b) and Sommerfeld (1910). However, it was shown by Abraham (1912) that those models belong to the class of "vector theories" of gravitation. The fundamental defect of those theories is that they implicitly contain a negative value for the gravitational energy in the vicinity of matter, which would violate the energy principle. As an alternative, Abraham (1912) and [[Gustav Mie]] (1913) proposed different "scalar theories" of gravitation. While Mie never formulated his theory in a consistent way, Abraham completely gave up the concept of Lorentz-covariance (even locally), and therefore it was irreconcilable with relativity.

In addition, all of those models violated the equivalence principle, and Einstein argued that it is impossible to formulate a theory which is both Lorentz-covariant and satisfies the equivalence principle. However, [[Gunnar Nordström]] (1912, 1913) was able to create a model which fulfilled both conditions. This was achieved by making both the gravitational and the inertial mass dependent on the gravitational potential. [[Nordström's theory of gravitation]] was remarkable because it was shown by Einstein and [[Adriaan Fokker]] (1914), that in this model gravitation can be completely described in terms of space-time curvature. Although Nordström's theory is without contradiction, from Einstein's point of view a fundamental problem persisted: It doesn't fulfill the important condition of general covariance, as in this theory preferred frames of reference can still be formulated. So contrary to those "scalar theories", Einstein (1911–1915) developed a "tensor theory" (i.e. [[general relativity]]), which fulfills both the equivalence principle and general covariance. As a consequence, the notion of a complete "special relativistic" theory of gravitation had to be given up, as in general relativity the constancy of light speed (and Lorentz covariance) is only locally valid. The decision between those models was brought about by Einstein, when he was able to exactly derive the [[Two-body problem in general relativity|perihelion precession of Mercury]], while the other theories gave erroneous results. In addition, Einstein's theory was the only theory which gave the correct value for the [[Gravitational lens|deflection of light]] near the sun.<ref>Norton (2005)</ref><ref>Walter (2007)</ref>

====Quantum field theory====
The need to put together relativity and [[quantum mechanics]] was one of the major motivations in the development of [[quantum field theory]]. [[Pascual Jordan]] and [[Wolfgang Pauli]] showed in 1928 that quantum fields could be made to be relativistic, and [[Paul Dirac]] produced the [[Dirac equation]] for electrons, and in so doing predicted the existence of [[antimatter]].<ref>A century of relativity, Irwin I. Shapiro, Reviews of Modern Physics, 1999, [http://zandra.phys.yorku.ca/menary/courses/phys2040/misc/relativity.pdf]</ref>

Many other domains have since been reformulated with relativistic treatments: [[relativistic thermodynamics]], [[relativistic statistical mechanics]], [[relativistic hydrodynamics]], [[relativistic quantum chemistry]], [[relativistic heat conduction]], etc.

===Experimental evidence===
{{Main|Tests of special relativity}}
Important early experiments confirming special relativity as mentioned above were the [[Fizeau experiment]], the [[Michelson–Morley experiment]], the [[Kaufmann–Bucherer–Neumann experiments]], the [[Trouton–Noble experiment]], the [[experiments of Rayleigh and Brace]], and the [[Trouton–Rankine experiment]].

In the 1920s, a series of [[Michelson–Morley experiment#Subsequent experiments|Michelson–Morley type experiments]] were conducted, confirming relativity to even higher precision than the original experiment. Another type of interferometer experiment was the [[Kennedy–Thorndike experiment]] in 1932, by which the independence of the speed of light from the velocity of the apparatus was confirmed. Also time dilation was directly measured in the [[Ives–Stilwell experiment]] in 1938 and by measuring the [[time dilation of moving particles|decay rates of moving particles]] in 1940. All of those experiments have been repeated several times with increased precision. In addition, that the speed of light is unreachable for massive bodies was measured in many [[tests of relativistic energy and momentum]]. Therefore, knowledge of those relativistic effects is required in the construction of [[particle accelerator]]s.

In 1962 [[J. G. Fox]] pointed out that all previous experimental tests of the constancy of the speed of light were conducted using light which had passed through stationary material: glass, air, or the incomplete vacuum of deep space. As a result, all were thus subject to the effects of the [[Extinction theorem of Ewald and Oseen|extinction theorem]]. This implied that the light being measured would have had a velocity different from that of the original source. He concluded that there was likely as yet no acceptable proof of the second postulate of special relativity. This surprising gap in the experimental record was quickly closed in the ensuing years, by experiments by Fox, and by Alvager et al., which used gamma rays sourced from high energy mesons. The high energy levels of the measured photons, along with very careful accounting for extinction effects, eliminated any significant doubt from their results.

Many other tests of special relativity have been conducted, testing possible violations of Lorentz invariance in some variants of [[quantum gravity]]. However, no sign of anisotropy of the speed of light has been found even at the 10−17 level, and some experiments even ruled out Lorentz violations at the 10−40 level, see [[Modern searches for Lorentz violation]].

===Priority===
Some claim that Poincaré and Lorentz, not Einstein, are the true founders of special relativity. For more see the article on [[relativity priority dispute]].

===Criticisms===
{{Main|Criticism of relativity theory}}
Some criticized Special Relativity from the beginning (1905) for various reasons, such as lack of empirical evidence, internal inconsistencies, paradoxes, logic contradictions, rejection of mathematical physics ''per se'', or philosophical reasons. Today, there are a growing number of critics of relativity, but mostly outside the academic theoretical physics mainstream. In addition, most scientists doing real world work that includes "relativistic" effects come to reject relativity to get their physical mechanisms to work (e.g,. GPS).

==See also==
{{Portal|Physics}}
*[[History of Lorentz transformations]]
*[[Tests of special relativity]]

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|year=1909
|title=[[s:The Principle of Relativity, and Non-Newtonian Mechanics|The Principle of Relativity, and Non-Newtonian Mechanics]]
|journal=Proceedings of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences
|volume=44
|pages=709–726
|doi=10.2307/20022495}}

*{{Citation
|author1=Lewis, Gilbert N. |author2=Wilson, Edwin B.
|year=1912
|title={{Internet archive|proceedingsofamer48amer|The Space-time Manifold of Relativity. The Non-Euclidean Geometry of Mechanics and Electromagnetics}}
|journal=Proceedings of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences
|volume=48
|pages=387–507
|doi=10.2307/20022840}}

*{{Citation
|author=Lorentz, Hendrik Antoon
|year=1886
|title=De l'influence du mouvement de la terre sur les phénomènes lumineux
|journal=Archives néerlandaises des sciences exactes et naturelles
|volume=21
|pages=103–176}}

*{{Citation
|author=Lorentz, Hendrik Antoon
|year=1892a
|title={{Internet archive|lathorielectrom00loregoog|La Théorie electromagnétique de Maxwell et son application aux corps mouvants}}
|journal=Archives néerlandaises des sciences exactes et naturelles
|volume=25
|pages=363–552}}

*{{Citation
|last=Lorentz
|first=Hendrik Antoon
|year=1892b
|title=De relatieve beweging van de aarde en den aether
|trans_title=[[s:Translation:The Relative Motion of the Earth and the Aether|The Relative Motion of the Earth and the Aether]]
|journal=Zittingsverlag Akad. V. Wet.
|pages=74–79
|volume=1}}

*{{Citation
|author=Lorentz, Hendrik Antoon
|year=1895
|title=[[s:de:Versuch einer Theorie der electrischen und optischen Erscheinungen in bewegten Körpern|Versuch einer Theorie der electrischen und optischen Erscheinungen in bewegten Körpern]]
|trans_title=[[s:Translation:Attempt of a Theory of Electrical and Optical Phenomena in Moving Bodies|Attempt of a Theory of Electrical and Optical Phenomena in Moving Bodies]]
|location=Leiden
|publisher=E.J. Brill}}

*{{Citation
|author=Lorentz, Hendrik Antoon
|year=1899
|title=[[s:Simplified Theory of Electrical and Optical Phenomena in Moving Systems|Simplified Theory of Electrical and Optical Phenomena in Moving Systems]]
|journal=Proceedings of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences
|volume=1
|pages=427–442}}

*{{Citation
|author=Lorentz, Hendrik Antoon
|title=[[s:Considerations on Gravitation|Considerations on Gravitation]]
|journal=Proceedings of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences
|year=1900
|volume=2
|pages=559–574}}

*{{Citation
|author=Lorentz, Hendrik Antoon
|year=1904a
|journal=Encyclopädie der mathematischen Wissenschaften
|title=Weiterbildung der Maxwellschen Theorie. Elektronentheorie.
|pages=145–288
|volume=5
|issue=2
|url=http://gdz.sub.uni-goettingen.de/no_cache/dms/load/img/?IDDOC=201792}}

*{{Citation
|author=Lorentz, Hendrik Antoon
|year=1904b
|title=[[s:Electromagnetic phenomena|Electromagnetic phenomena in a system moving with any velocity smaller than that of light]]
|journal=Proceedings of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences
|volume=6
|pages=809–831}}

*{{Citation
|author=Lorentz, Hendrik Antoon
|origyear=1910|year=1931
|title=Lecture on theoretical physics, Vol.3
|publisher=MacMillan
|location=London}}

*{{Citation
|author1=Lorentz, Hendrik Antoon |author2=Einstein, Albert |author3=Minkowski, Hermann
|year=1913
|title={{Internet archive|dasrelativittsp00minkgoog|Das Relativitätsprinzip. Eine Sammlung von Abhandlungen.}}
|location=Leipzig & Berlin
|publisher=B.G. Teubner}}

*{{Citation
|author=Lorentz, Hendrik Antoon
|year=1914
|title=[[s:Das Relativitätsprinzip (Lorentz)|Das Relativitätsprinzip. Drei Vorlesungen gehalten in Teylers Stiftung zu Haarlem]]
|publisher=B.G. Teubner
|location=Leipzig and Berlin}}

*{{Citation
|author=Lorentz, Hendrik Antoon
|year=1914
|title=La Gravitation
|journal=Scientia
|volume=16
|pages=28–59
|url=http://diglib.cib.unibo.it/diglib.php?inv=7&int_ptnum=16&term_ptnum=36&format=jpg}}

*{{Citation
|author=Lorentz, Hendrik Antoon
|year=1916
|title={{Internet archive|electronstheory00lorerich|The theory of electrons and its applications to the phenomena of light and radiant heat}}
|location=Leipzig & Berlin
|publisher=B.G. Teubner}}

*{{Citation
|author=Lorentz, Hendrik Antoon
|year=1921
|title=[[s:fr:Deux Mémoires de Henri Poincaré sur la Physique Mathématique|Deux Mémoires de Henri Poincaré sur la Physique Mathématique]]
|trans_title=[[s:Translation:Two Papers of Henri Poincaré on Mathematical Physics|Two Papers of Henri Poincaré on Mathematical Physics]]
|journal=Acta Mathematica
|volume=38
|issue=1
|pages=293–308
|doi=10.1007/BF02392073}};

*{{Citation
|author=Lorentz, Hendrik Antoon
|year=1928
|title=Conference on the Michelson-Morley Experiment
|journal=The Astrophysical Journal
|volume=68
|pages=345–351
|bibcode=1928ApJ....68..341M
|doi=10.1086/143148
|last2=Lorentz
|first2=H. A.
|last3=Miller
|first3=D. C.
|last4=Kennedy
|first4=R. J.
|last5=Hedrick
|first5=E. R.
|last6=Epstein
|first6=P. S.}}

*{{Citation
|author=Mach, Ernst
|year=1912
|orig-year=1883
|title=Die Mechanik in ihrer Entwicklung
|location=Leipzig
|publisher=Brockhaus
|url=http://www.jwdt.com/~paysan/mach.pdf}}

*{{Citation
|author=Maxwell, James Clerk
|title=[[s:A Dynamical Theory of the Electromagnetic Field|A Dynamical Theory of the Electromagnetic Field]]
|journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society
|volume=155
|year=1864
|pages=459–512
|doi=10.1098/rstl.1865.0008
|bibcode=1865RSPT..155..459C}}

*{{Citation
|author=Maxwell, James Clerk
|year=1873
|title={{Internet archive|electricandmag02maxwrich|A Treatise on electricity and magnetism}}
|volume=2
|chapter=§ 792
|pages=391
|publisher=Macmillan & Co.
|location=London}}

*{{Citation
|author=Michelson, Albert A.
|title=[[s:The Relative Motion of the Earth and the Luminiferous Ether|The Relative Motion of the Earth and the Luminiferous Ether]]
|journal=American Journal of Science
|volume=22
|year=1881
|pages=120–129
|doi=10.2475/ajs.s3-22.128.120}}

*{{Citation
|author1=Michelson, Albert A. |author2=Morley, Edward W.
|title=[[s:Influence of Motion of the Medium on the Velocity of Light|Influence of Motion of the Medium on the Velocity of Light]]
|journal=American Journal of Science
|volume=31
|year=1886
|pages=377–386
|doi=10.2475/ajs.s3-31.185.377}}

*{{Citation
|author1=Michelson, Albert A. |author2=Morley, Edward W.
|title=[[s:On the Relative Motion of the Earth and the Luminiferous Ether|On the Relative Motion of the Earth and the Luminiferous Ether]]
|journal=American Journal of Science
|volume=34
|year=1887
|pages=333–345
|doi=10.2475/ajs.s3-34.203.333}}

*{{Citation
|author1=Michelson, Albert A. |author2=Gale, Henry G.
|title=The Effect of the Earth's Rotation on the Velocity of Light
|journal=The Astrophysical Journal
|volume=61
|year=1925
|pages=140–145
|bibcode=1925ApJ....61..140M
|doi=10.1086/142879}}

*{{Citation
|doi=10.1002/andp.19153521505
|author=Minkowski, Hermann
|origyear=1907|year=1915
|title=[[s:de:Das Relativitätsprinzip (Minkowski)|Das Relativitätsprinzip]]
|journal=Annalen der Physik
|volume=352
|issue=15
|pages=927–938|bibcode = 1915AnP...352..927M }}

*{{Citation
|author=Minkowski, Hermann
|year=1908
|orig-year=1907
|title=[[s:de:Die Grundgleichungen für die elektromagnetischen Vorgänge in bewegten Körpern|Die Grundgleichungen für die elektromagnetischen Vorgänge in bewegten Körpern]]
|trans_title=[[s:Translation:The Fundamental Equations for Electromagnetic Processes in Moving Bodies|The Fundamental Equations for Electromagnetic Processes in Moving Bodies]]
|journal=Nachrichten von der Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften zu Göttingen, Mathematisch-Physikalische Klasse
|pages=53–111}} (English translation in 1920 by [[Meghnad Saha]]).

*{{Citation|author=Minkowski, Hermann|year=1909|orig-year=1908|
title=[[s:de:Raum und Zeit (Minkowski)|Raum und Zeit]]|journal=Physikalische Zeitschrift|volume=10|pages=75–88}}
:*Various English translations on Wikisource: [[s:Space and Time|Space and Time]]

*{{Citation
|doi=10.1002/andp.19073270504
|author=Mosengeil, Kurd von
|year=1907
|title=[[s:de:Theorie der stationären Strahlung|Theorie der stationären Strahlung in einem gleichförmig bewegten Hohlraum]]
|journal=Annalen der Physik
|volume=327
|issue=5
|pages=867–904|bibcode = 1907AnP...327..867V }}

*{{Citation
|author=Neumann, Carl
|year=1870
|title={{Internet archive|ueberdieprincip00neumgoog|Ueber die Principien der Galilei-Newtonschen Theorie}}
|location=Leipzig
|publisher=B.G. Teubner}}

*{{Citation
|author=Neumann, Günther
|year=1914
|title=Die träge Masse schnell bewegter Elektronen
|journal=Annalen der Physik
|volume=350
|issue=20
|pages=529–579
|url=http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k153486/f542.table
|doi=10.1002/andp.19143502005|bibcode = 1914AnP...350..529N }}

* {{Citation
|doi=10.1002/andp.19133471303
|author=Nordström, Gunnar
|year=1913
|title=Zur Theorie der Gravitation vom Standpunkt des Relativitätsprinzips
|journal=Annalen der Physik
|volume=347
|issue=13
|pages=533–554
|url=http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k153455.image.f545
|postscript=.|bibcode = 1913AnP...347..533N }}

*{{Citation
|author=Palagyi, Menyhért
|year=1901
|title=[[s:de:Neue Theorie des Raumes und der Zeit|Neue Theorie des Raumes und der Zeit]]
|location=Leipzig
|publisher=Wilhelm Engelmann}}

*{{Citation
|author=Planck, Max
|year=1906a
|title=Das Prinzip der Relativität und die Grundgleichungen der Mechanik
|trans_title=[[s:Translation:The Principle of Relativity and the Fundamental Equations of Mechanics|The Principle of Relativity and the Fundamental Equations of Mechanics]]
|journal=Verhandlungen Deutsche Physikalische Gesellschaft
|volume=8
|pages=136–141}}

*{{Citation
|author=Planck, Max
|year=1906b
|title=Die Kaufmannschen Messungen der Ablenkbarkeit der β-Strahlen in ihrer Bedeutung für die Dynamik der Elektronen
|trans_title=[[s:Translation:The Measurements of Kaufmann|The Measurements of Kaufmann on the Deflectability of β-Rays in their Importance for the Dynamics of the Electrons]]
|journal=Physikalische Zeitschrift
|volume=7
|pages=753–761}}

*{{Citation
|author=Planck, Max
|year=1907
|title=Zur Dynamik bewegter Systeme
|trans_title=[[s:Translation:On the Dynamics of Moving Systems|On the Dynamics of Moving Systems]]
|journal=Sitzungsberichte der Königlich-Preussischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, Berlin
|volume=Erster Halbband
|issue=29
|pages=542–570}}

*{{Citation
|author=Planck, Max
|year=1908
|title=Bemerkungen zum Prinzip der Aktion und Reaktion in der allgemeinen Dynamik
|trans_title=[[s:Translation:Notes on the Principle of Action and Reaction in General Dynamics|Notes on the Principle of Action and Reaction in General Dynamics]]
|journal=Physikalische Zeitschrift
|volume=9
|issue=23
|pages=828–830}}

*{{Citation
|author=Planck, Max
|origyear=1909|year=1915
|chapter=[[s:General Dynamics. Principle of Relativity|General Dynamics. Principle of Relativity]]
|title=Eight lectures on theoretical physics
|location=New York
|publisher=Columbia University Press}}

*{{Citation
|author=Poincaré, Henri
|year=1889
|title=Théorie mathématique de la lumière
|volume=1
|publisher=G. Carré & C. Naud
|location=Paris}} Preface partly reprinted in "Science and Hypothesis", Ch. 12.

*{{Citation
|author=Poincaré, Henri
|year=1895
|title=A propos de la Théorie de M. Larmor
|journal=L'éclairage électrique
|volume=5
|pages=5–14}} Reprinted in Poincaré, Oeuvres, tome IX, pp. 395–413

*{{Citation
|author=Poincaré, Henri
|year=1913
|orig-year=1898
|title=The Foundations of Science (The Value of Science)
|chapter=[[s:The Measure of Time|The Measure of Time]]
|location=New York
|publisher=Science Press
|pages=222–234}}

*{{Citation
|author=Poincaré, Henri
|year=1900a
|title=Les relations entre la physique expérimentale et la physique mathématique
|journal=Revue générale des sciences pures et appliquées
|volume=11
|pages=1163–1175
|url=http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k17075r/f1167.table}}. Reprinted in "Science and Hypothesis", Ch. 9–10.

*{{Citation
|author=Poincaré, Henri
|year=1900b
|title=[[s:fr:La théorie de Lorentz et le principe de réaction|La théorie de Lorentz et le principe de réaction]]
|journal=Archives néerlandaises des sciences exactes et naturelles
|volume=5
|pages=252–278}}. See also the [http://www.physicsinsights.org/poincare-1900.pdf English translation].

*{{Citation
|author=Poincaré, Henri
|year=1901a
|title=Sur les principes de la mécanique
|journal=Bibliothèque du Congrès international de philosophie
|pages=457–494}}. Reprinted in "Science and Hypothesis", Ch. 6–7.

*{{Citation
|author=Poincaré, Henri
|year=1901b
|title={{Internet archive|electriciteetopt019479mbp|Électricité et optique}}
|publisher=Gauthier-Villars
|location=Paris}}

*{{Citation
|author=Poincaré, Henri
|year=1902
|title=[[Science and Hypothesis]]
|location=London and Newcastle-on-Cyne (1905)
|publisher=The Walter Scott publishing Co.}}

*{{Citation
|author=Poincaré, Henri
|year=1906
|orig-year=1904
|chapter=[[s:The Principles of Mathematical Physics|The Principles of Mathematical Physics]]
|title=Congress of arts and science, universal exposition, St. Louis, 1904
|volume=1
|pages=604–622
|publisher=Houghton, Mifflin and Company
|location=Boston and New York}}

*{{Citation
|author=Poincaré, Henri
|year=1905b
|title=[[s:fr:Sur la dynamique de l’électron (juin)|Sur la dynamique de l'électron]]
|trans_title=[[s:Translation:On the Dynamics of the Electron (June)|On the Dynamics of the Electron]]
|journal=Comptes Rendus
|volume=140
|pages=1504–1508}}.

*{{Citation
|author=Poincaré, Henri
|year=1906
|orig-year=1905
|title=[[s:fr:Sur la dynamique de l’électron (juillet)|Sur la dynamique de l'électron]]
|trans_title=[[s:Translation:On the Dynamics of the Electron (July)|On the Dynamics of the Electron]]
|journal=Rendiconti del Circolo matematico di Palermo
|volume=21
|pages=129–176
|doi=10.1007/BF03013466}}

*{{Citation
|author=Poincaré, Henri
|year=1913
|orig-year=1908
|title=The foundations of science (Science and Method)
|chapter=[[s:The New Mechanics|The New Mechanics]]
|location=New York
|publisher=Science Press
|pages=486–522}}

*{{Citation
|author=Poincaré, Henri
|year=1909
|title=[[s:fr:La Mécanique nouvelle (Lille)|La Mécanique nouvelle (Lille)]]
|journal=Revue scientifique
|volume=47
|pages=170–177
|location=Paris}}

*{{Citation
|author=Poincaré, Henri
|year=1910
|orig-year=1909
|contribution=[[s:The New Mechanics (Göttingen)|The New Mechanics (Göttingen)]]
|title=Sechs Vorträge über ausgewählte Gegenstände aus der reinen Mathematik und mathematischen Physik
|publisher=B.G.Teubner
|location=Leipzig und Berlin
|pages=41–47}}

*{{Citation
|author=Poincaré, Henri
|year=1911
|orig-year=
|title=[[s:de:Die neue Mechanik (Poincaré 1910)|Die neue Mechanik (Berlin)]]
|location=Leipzig & Berlin
|publisher=B.G. Teubner}}

*{{Citation
|author=Poincaré, Henri
|year=1912
|title=L'hypothèse des quanta
|journal=Revue scientifique
|volume=17
|pages=225–232}} Reprinted in Poincaré 1913, Ch. 6.

*{{Citation
|author=Poincaré, Henri
|year=1913
|title={{Internet archive|mathematicsandsc001861mbp|Last Essays}}
|location=New York
|publisher=Dover Publication (1963)}}

*{{Citation
|author=Ritz, Walter
|year=1908
|title=Recherches critiques sur l'Électrodynamique Générale
|journal=[[Annales de Chimie et de Physique]]
|volume=13
|pages=145–275
|url=http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k349439/f143.table}}, see English [http://www.datasync.com/~rsf1/crit/1908a.htm translation].

*{{Citation
|author=Robb, Alfred A.
|year=1911
|title={{Internet archive|opticalgeometryo00robbrich|Optical Geometry of Motion: A New View of the Theory of Relativity}}
|location=Cambridge
|publisher=W. Heffer}}

*{{Citation
|author=Sagnac, Georges
|year=1913
|title=[[s:fr:L’éther lumineux démontré|L'éther lumineux démontré par l'effet du vent relatif d'éther dans un interféromètre en rotation uniforme]]
|trans_title=[[s:Translation:The demonstration of the luminiferous aether|The demonstration of the luminiferous aether by an interferometer in uniform rotation]]
|journal=Comptes Rendus
|volume=157
|pages=708–710}}

*{{Citation
|author=Sagnac, Georges
|year=1913
|title=[[s:fr:Sur la preuve de la réalité de l’éther lumineux|Sur la preuve de la réalité de l'éther lumineux par l'expérience de l'interférographe tournant]]
|trans_title=[[s:Translation:On the proof of the reality of the luminiferous aether|On the proof of the reality of the luminiferous aether by the experiment with a rotating interferometer]]
|journal=Comptes Rendus
|volume=157
|pages=1410–1413}}

*{{Citation
|author=Searle, George Frederick Charles
|year=1897
|title=[[s:On the Steady Motion of an Electrified Ellipsoid|On the Steady Motion of an Electrified Ellipsoid]]
|journal=Philosophical Magazine
|series=5
|volume=44
|issue=269
|pages=329–341
|doi=10.1080/14786449708621072}}

*{{Citation
|author=Sommerfeld, Arnold
|year=1910
|title=Zur Relativitätstheorie I: Vierdimensionale Vektoralgebra
|trans_title=[[s:Translation:On the Theory of Relativity I: Four-dimensional Vector Algebra|On the Theory of Relativity I: Four-dimensional Vector Algebra]]
|journal=Annalen der Physik
|volume=337
|issue=9
|pages=749–776
|doi=10.1002/andp.19103370904|bibcode = 1910AnP...337..749S }}

*{{Citation
|author=Sommerfeld, Arnold
|year=1910
|title=Zur Relativitätstheorie II: Vierdimensionale
|trans_title=[[s:Translation:On the Theory of Relativity II: Four-dimensional Vector Analysis|On the Theory of Relativity II: Four-dimensional Vector Analysis]]
|journal=Annalen der Physik
|volume=338
|issue=14
|pages=649–689
|doi=10.1002/andp.19103381402|bibcode = 1910AnP...338..649S }}

*{{Citation
|author=Stokes, George Gabriel
|title=On the Aberration of Light
|journal=Philosophical Magazine
|volume=27
|year=1845
|pages=9–15
|doi=10.1080/14786444508645215}}

*{{Citation
|author=Streintz, Heinrich
|year=1883
|title={{Internet archive|diephysikalisch00stregoog|Die physikalischen Grundlagen der Mechanik}}
|location=Leipzig
|publisher=B.G. Teubner}}

*{{Citation
|author=Thomson, Joseph John
|year=1881
|title=[[s:On the Electric and Magnetic Effects produced by the Motion of Electrified Bodies|On the Electric and Magnetic Effects produced by the Motion of Electrified Bodies]]
|journal=Philosophical Magazine
|volume=11
|series=5
|issue=68
|pages=229–249
|doi=10.1080/14786448108627008}}

*{{Citation
|author=Tolman, Richard Chase
|year=1912
|title=[[s:The Mass of a Moving Body|The mass of a moving body]]
|journal=Philosophical Magazine
|volume=23
|pages=375–380
|doi=10.1080/14786440308637231}}

*{{Citation
|author=Varičak, Vladimir
|year=1911
|title=[[s:de:Zum Ehrenfestschen Paradoxon|Zum Ehrenfestschen Paradoxon]]
|trans_title=[[s:Translation:On Ehrenfest's Paradox|On Ehrenfest's Paradox]]
|journal=Physikalische Zeitschrift
|volume=12
|pages=169}}

*{{Citation
| author=Varičak, Vladimir
| year=1912
| title=[[s:de:Über die nichteuklidische Interpretation der Relativtheorie|Über die nichteuklidische Interpretation der Relativtheorie]]
|trans_title=[[s:Translation:On the Non-Euclidean Interpretation of the Theory of Relativity|On the Non-Euclidean Interpretation of the Theory of Relativity]]
| journal=Jahresbericht der Deutschen Mathematiker-Vereinigung
| volume =21
| pages =103–127}}

*{{Citation
|author=Voigt, Woldemar
|year=1887
|title=[[s:de:Ueber das Doppler’sche Princip|Ueber das Doppler'sche Princip]]
|trans_title=[[s:Translation:On the Principle of Doppler|On the Principle of Doppler]]
|journal=Nachrichten von der Königl. Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften und der Georg-Augusts-Universität zu Göttingen
|issue=2
|pages=41–51}}

*{{Citation
|author=Wien, Wilhelm
|year=1900
|title=[[s:de:Über die Möglichkeit einer elektromagnetischen Begründung der Mechanik|Über die Möglichkeit einer elektromagnetischen Begründung der Mechanik]]
|trans_title=[[s:Translation:On the Possibility of an Electromagnetic Foundation of Mechanics|On the Possibility of an Electromagnetic Foundation of Mechanics]]
|journal=Annalen der Physik
|volume=310
|issue=7
|pages=501–513
|doi=10.1002/andp.19013100703|bibcode = 1901AnP...310..501W }}

*{{Citation
|doi=10.1002/andp.18943180402
|author=Wien, Wilhelm
|year=1904a
|title=[[s:de:Differentialgleichungen der Elektrodynamik I|Über die Differentialgleichungen der Elektrodynamik für bewegte Körper. I]]
|journal=Annalen der Physik
|volume=318
|issue=4
|pages=641–662|bibcode = 1904AnP...318..641W }}

*{{Citation
|doi=10.1002/andp.18943180403
|author=Wien, Wilhelm
|year=1904a
|title=[[s:de:Differentialgleichungen der Elektrodynamik II|Über die Differentialgleichungen der Elektrodynamik für bewegte Körper. II]]
|journal=Annalen der Physik
|volume=318
|issue=4
|pages=663–668|bibcode = 1904AnP...318..663W }}

*{{Citation
|doi=10.1002/andp.19043190817
|author=Wien, Wilhelm
|year=1904b
|title=[[s:de:Erwiderung auf die Kritik des Hrn. M. Abraham|Erwiderung auf die Kritik des Hrn. M. Abraham]]
|journal=Annalen der Physik
|volume=319
|issue=8
|pages=635–637|bibcode = 1904AnP...319..635W }}
{{Refend}}

===Notes and Secondary sources===
{{col-begin}}
{{col-break|width=25%}}
{{Reflist}}
{{col-break|width=75%}}
*{{Citation
|author=Archibald, R.C.
|title= Time as a fourth dimension
|journal=Bull. Amer. Math. Soc.
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|volume=20
|issue=8
|pages=409–412
|url=http://projecteuclid.org/euclid.bams/1183422749
|doi=10.1090/S0002-9904-1914-02511-X}}

*{{Citation
|author=Born, Max
|authorlink=Max Born
|title = Einstein's Theory of Relativity
|publisher=Dover Publications
|year =1964
|isbn=0-486-60769-0 }}

*{{Citation
|author=Born, Max
|authorlink=Max Born
|title = Physics in my generation
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==External links==
*{{MacTutor Biography|class=HistTopics|id=Special_relativity|title=Special relativity}}
*Mathpages: [http://www.mathpages.com/rr/s1-05/1-05.htm Corresponding States], [http://www.mathpages.com/rr/s3-06/3-06.htm The End of My Latin], [http://www.mathpages.com/rr/s8-08/8-08.htm Who Invented Relativity?], [http://www.mathpages.com/home/kmath305/kmath305.htm Poincaré Contemplates Copernicus]
*Berger, Andy "[http://discovermagazine.com/2016/june/9-all-in-his-head All in Einstein's Head]" June 2016, [[Discover (magazine)|Discover magazine]], explanations of Einstein's though experiments
<references group=W />

{{DEFAULTSORT:History of Special Relativity}}
[[Category:Special relativity]]
[[Category:History of physics|Special relativity]]
[[Category:Aether theories]]
[[Category:Hendrik Lorentz]]

Thomas Edison

2018-12-17T00:19:17Z

CriticalT: Very minor clarification

{{Pp-protected|small=yes}}
{{Use American English|date=March 2015}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=July 2017}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Thomas Edison
| image = Thomas Edison2.jpg
| caption = Edison, {{circa}}1922
| birth_name = Thomas Alva Edison
| birth_date = {{Birth date|1847|2|11}}
| birth_place = [[Milan, Ohio]], U.S.
| death_date = {{Death date and age|1931|10|18|1847|2|11}}
| death_place = [[West Orange, New Jersey]], U.S.
| burial_place = [[Thomas Edison National Historical Park]]
| occupation = [[Inventor]], [[businessman]]
| years_active = 1877–1930
| education = [[Self-educated]]
| nationality = [[Americans|American]]
| spouse = {{ublist|{{marriage|Mary Stilwell |December 25, 1871|August 9, 1884}}|{{marriage|Mina Miller |February 24, 1886|October 18, 1931}}}}

| partner =
| children = {{Plainlist|
* Marion Estelle Edison (1873–1965)
* [[Thomas Edison#Thomas Edison Jr.'s activities|Thomas Alva Edison Jr.]] (1876–1935)
* William Leslie Edison (1878–1937)
* [[Madeleine Edison]] (1888–1979)
* [[Charles Edison]] (1890–1969)
* [[Theodore Miller Edison]] (1898–1992)
}}
| parents = {{ublist|Samuel Ogden Edison Jr. (1804–1896)|Nancy Matthews Elliott (1810–1871)}}
| relatives = [[Lewis Miller (philanthropist)|Lewis Miller]] (father-in-law)
| signature = Thomas Alva Edison Signature.svg
| website =
| footnotes =
}}

'''Thomas Alva Edison''' (February 11, 1847{{spaced ndash}}October 18, 1931) was an American [[inventor]] and businessman, who has been described as America's greatest inventor.<ref>{{cite news|author1=Adrian Wooldridge|authorlink1=Adrian Wooldridge|title=The alphabet of success|url=https://www.economist.com/news/special-report/21707053-superstars-need-dazzling-range-qualities-alphabet-success|accessdate=September 16, 2016|work=[[The Economist]]|date=September 15, 2016}}</ref><ref name="Sproule1">{{cite book|last1=Sproule|first1=Anna|title=Thomas Alva Edison : The World's Greatest Inventor|date=2000|publisher=Blackbirch Press|location=Woodbridge, CT|isbn=9781567113310|edition= 1st U.S.}}</ref><ref name="SoNJ1">{{cite web|title=Hangout - Thomas Edison|url=http://www.state.nj.us/hangout_nj/200408_edison_p1.html|website=www.state.nj.us|publisher=State of New Jersey}}</ref> He is credited with developing many devices in fields such as [[electric power generation]], [[mass communication]], [[sound recording]], and [[motion pictures]].<ref name="coned1">{{cite web|url=http://www.coned.com/history/electricity.asp |title=Con Edison: A Brief History of Con Edison – electricity |publisher=Coned.com |date=January 1, 1998 |accessdate=October 11, 2012 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20121030164753/http://www.coned.com/history/electricity.asp |archivedate=October 30, 2012 |df= }}</ref> These inventions, which include the [[phonograph]], the [[Movie camera|motion picture camera]], and the long-lasting, practical electric [[Incandescent light bulb|light bulb]], had a widespread impact on the modern [[industrial society|industrialized world]].<ref name="Wizard">{{cite web|url=http://fi.edu/franklin/inventor/edison.html |title=The Wizard of Menlo Park |work=The Franklin Institute |accessdate=February 24, 2013 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130305131049/http://fi.edu/franklin/inventor/edison.html |archivedate=March 5, 2013 |df= }}</ref> He was one of the first inventors to apply the principles of [[mass production]] and teamwork to the process of invention, working with many researchers and employees.<ref name="Walsh"/> He is often credited with establishing the first industrial [[research laboratory]].<ref name="Walsh">{{cite news|last=Walsh|first= Bryan|url=http://www.time.com/time/specials/packages/article/0,28804,1910417_1910419_1910460,00.html |title=The Electrifying Edison |publisher=Time.com |date=July 15, 2009 |accessdate=December 31, 2013}}</ref>

Edison was raised in the American [[midwest]] and early in his career he worked as a [[telegraph operator]], which inspired some of his earliest inventions.<ref name="coned1">{{cite web|url=http://www.coned.com/history/electricity.asp |title=Con Edison: A Brief History of Con Edison – electricity |publisher=Coned.com |date=January 1, 1998 |accessdate=October 11, 2012 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20121030164753/http://www.coned.com/history/electricity.asp |archivedate=October 30, 2012 |df= }}</ref> In 1876, he established his first laboratory facility in [[Menlo Park, New Jersey]], where many of his early inventions would be developed. He would later establish a [[botany|botanic]] laboratory in [[Fort Myers, Florida]] in collaboration with businessmen [[Henry Ford]] and [[Harvey Firestone]], and a laboratory in [[West Orange, New Jersey]] that featured the world's first [[film studio]], the [[Edison's Black Maria|Black Maria]]. He was a [[List of prolific inventors|prolific inventor]], holding 1,093 [[List of Edison patents|US patents in his name]], as well as patents in other countries. Edison married twice and fathered six children. He died in 1931 of complications of [[diabetes]].

==Early life==
[[File:Young Thomas Edison.jpg|thumb|upright=0.9|Edison as a boy]]
Thomas Edison was born, in 1847, in [[Milan, Ohio]], and grew up in [[Port Huron, Michigan]]. He was the seventh and last child of Samuel Ogden Edison Jr. (1804–1896, born in [[Marshalltown, Nova Scotia]]) and Nancy Matthews Elliott (1810–1871, born in [[Chenango County, New York]]).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://tps.cr.nps.gov/nhl/detail.cfm?ResourceId=443&ResourceType |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110808185308/http://tps.cr.nps.gov/nhl/detail.cfm?ResourceId=443&ResourceType |dead-url=yes |archive-date=August 8, 2011 |title=National Historic Landmarks Program (NHL) |publisher=Tps.cr.nps.gov |date=January 12, 1965 |accessdate=December 31, 2013 }}</ref><ref>[http://invention.si.edu/thomas-edisons-inventive-life Thomas Edison's Inventive Life; by Joyce Bedi] Retrieved March 31, 2018</ref> His father, the son of a [[Loyalist (American Revolution)|Loyalist]] refugee, had moved as a boy with the family from Nova Scotia, settling in [[southwestern Ontario]] (then called [[Upper Canada]]), in a village known as Shewsbury, later [[Vienna, Ontario|Vienna]], by 1811. Samuel Jr. eventually fled Ontario, because he took part in the unsuccessful [[Rebellions of 1837|Mackenzie Rebellion]] of 1837.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nps.gov/edis/historyculture/samuel-and-nancy-elliott-edison.htm |title=Samuel and Nancy Elliott Edison |work=National Park Service |accessdate=February 24, 2013}}</ref> His father, Samuel Sr., had earlier fought in the [[War of 1812]] as captain of the First Middlesex Regiment. By contrast, Samuel Jr.'s struggle found him on the losing side, and he crossed into the United States at [[Sarnia]]-Port Huron. Once across the border, he found his way to [[Milan, Ohio]]. His patrilineal family line was [[Dutch Americans|Dutch]] by way of New Jersey;<ref>{{cite book |title=The Yankee Road: Tracing the Journey of the New England Tribe that Created Modern America, Vol. 2: Domination |publisher=Wheatmark, Inc. |isbn=1627875190 |page=146 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PcFODwAAQBAJ&pg=PA146}}</ref> the surname had originally been "Edeson."<ref name="Baldwin">{{cite book | last = Baldwin | first = Neal | title = Edison: Inventing the Century | publisher=[[Hyperion (publisher)|Hyperion]] | year = 1995 | pages = 3–5 | isbn = 978-0-7868-6041-8 }}</ref>

Edison only attended school for a few months and was instead taught by his mother.<ref name="npsedisonbio">{{cite web|title=Edison Biography|url=https://www.nps.gov/edis/learn/historyculture/edison-biography.htm|website=National Park Service|accessdate=May 28, 2017}}</ref> Much of his education came from reading R.G. Parker's ''[[School of Natural Philosophy]]'' and [[The Cooper Union for the Advancement of Science and Art]].<ref>{{cite news |title=For Sesquicentennial, Cooper Union Puts Artifacts on View | url=http://cityroom.blogs.nytimes.com/2009/11/30/for-sesquicentennial-cooper-union-puts-artifacts-on-view/?_r=0 | work=The New York Times | first=Bao | last=Ong | date=November 30, 2009}}</ref>

Edison developed hearing problems at an early age. The cause of his deafness has been attributed to a bout of [[scarlet fever]] during childhood and recurring untreated middle-ear infections. Around the middle of his career, Edison attributed the hearing impairment to being struck on the ears by a train conductor when his chemical laboratory in a boxcar caught fire and he was thrown off the train in [[Smiths Creek, Michigan]], along with his apparatus and chemicals. In his later years, he modified the story to say the injury occurred when the conductor, in helping him onto a moving train, lifted him by the ears.<ref name="Josephson">"Edison" by [[Matthew Josephson]]. McGraw Hill, New York, 1959, {{ISBN|978-0-07-033046-7}}</ref><ref>"Edison: Inventing the Century" by [[Neil Baldwin (writer)|Neil Baldwin]], University of Chicago Press, 2001, {{ISBN|978-0-226-03571-0}}</ref>

==Early career==
Edison's family moved to [[Port Huron, Michigan]], after the canal owners successfully kept the railroad out of Milan Ohio in 1854 and business declined.<ref>Josephson, p 18</ref> Edison sold candy and newspapers on trains running from Port Huron to Detroit, and sold vegetables. He became a telegraph operator after he saved three-year-old Jimmie MacKenzie from being struck by a runaway train. Jimmie's father, [[Station master|station agent]] J. U. MacKenzie of [[Mount Clemens, Michigan]], was so grateful that he trained Edison as a telegraph operator. Edison's first telegraphy job away from Port Huron was at Stratford Junction, Ontario, on the [[Grand Trunk Railway]].<ref>Baldwin, page 37</ref> He was held responsible for a near collision. He also studied qualitative analysis and conducted chemical experiments on the train until he left the job.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.visitstratford.ca/uploads/railwayindustry.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170307123422/http://www.visitstratford.ca/uploads/railwayindustry.pdf |dead-url=yes |archive-date=2017-03-07 |title=Stratford's Railway Industry |author= |date=2010 |website=Visit Stratford |publisher=Stratford Tourism |access-date=March 6, 2017 }}</ref><ref name="Cite CAB|Edison, Thomas Alva">{{Cite CAB|wstitle=Edison, Thomas Alva}}</ref>

Edison obtained the exclusive right to sell newspapers on the road, and, with the aid of four assistants, he set in type and printed the ''Grand Trunk Herald'', which he sold with his other papers.<ref name="Cite CAB|Edison, Thomas Alva"/> This began Edison's long streak of entrepreneurial ventures, as he discovered his talents as a businessman. These talents eventually led him to found 14 companies, including [[General Electric]], still one of the largest [[public company|publicly traded companies]] in the world.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.tradingmarkets.com/.site/news/Stock%20News/2266720/ |title=GE emerges world's largest company: Forbes |publisher=Trading Markets.com |date=April 10, 2009 |accessdate=February 7, 2010 |archiveurl=https://www.webcitation.org/5umTYYG9X?url=http://www.tradingmarkets.com/.site/news/Stock%20News/2266720/ |archivedate=December 6, 2010 |deadurl=yes |df= }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.indianexpress.com/news/ge-emerges-worlds-largest-company-forbes/445093 |title=GE emerges world's largest company: Forbes |publisher=Indian Express.com |date=April 9, 2009 |accessdate=February 7, 2010 |archiveurl=https://www.webcitation.org/5umTYurUQ?url=http://www.indianexpress.com/news/ge-emerges-worlds-largest-company-forbes/445093 |archivedate=December 6, 2010 |deadurl=no |df= }}</ref>

In 1866, at the age of 19, Edison moved to [[Louisville, Kentucky]], where, as an employee of [[Western Union]], he worked the [[Associated Press]] bureau [[news agency|news wire]]. Edison requested the night shift, which allowed him plenty of time to spend at his two favorite pastimes—reading and experimenting. Eventually, the latter pre-occupation cost him his job. One night in 1867, he was working with a [[lead–acid battery]] when he spilled [[sulfuric acid]] onto the floor. It ran between the floorboards and onto his boss's desk below. The next morning Edison was fired.<ref>Baldwin, pages 40–41</ref>

One of his mentors during those early years was a fellow telegrapher and inventor named [[Franklin Leonard Pope]], who allowed the impoverished youth to live and work in the basement of his [[Elizabeth, New Jersey]], home. Some of Edison's earliest inventions were related to telegraphy, including a stock ticker. His first patent was for the electric vote recorder, {{US patent|90646}}, which was granted on June 1, 1869.<ref>[http://edison.rutgers.edu/vote.htm The Edison Papers], Rutgers University. Retrieved March 20, 2007.</ref>

==Menlo Park laboratory (1876-1886)==
===Research and development facility===
[[File:Menlo Park Laboratory.JPG|thumb|upright=1.15|Edison's Menlo Park Laboratory, reconstructed at Greenfield Village at [[Henry Ford Museum]] in Dearborn, Michigan.]]
Edison's major innovation was the establishment of an industrial research lab in 1876. It was built in [[Menlo Park, New Jersey|Menlo Park]], a part of Raritan Township (now named [[Edison, New Jersey|Edison Township]] in his honor) in [[Middlesex County, New Jersey]], with the funds from the sale of Edison's [[quadruplex telegraph]]. After his demonstration of the telegraph, Edison was not sure that his original plan to sell it for $4,000 to $5,000 was right, so he asked Western Union to make a bid. He was surprised to hear them offer $10,000 (${{Inflation|US|10,000|1874|fmt=c|r=-2}} in today's dollars.{{Inflation-fn|US}}), which he gratefully accepted.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.bounceenergy.com/blog/2013/02/happy-birthday-thomas-edison/ |title=Happy Birthday, Thomas Edison! |last=Trollinger |first=Vernon |work=Bounce Energy |date=February 11, 2013 |accessdate=February 24, 2013}}</ref> The quadruplex telegraph was Edison's first big financial success, and Menlo Park became the first institution set up with the specific purpose of producing constant technological innovation and improvement. Edison was legally attributed with most of the inventions produced there, though many employees carried out research and development under his direction. His staff was generally told to carry out his directions in conducting research, and he drove them hard to produce results.

[[William Joseph Hammer]], a consulting electrical engineer, started working for Edison and began his duties as a laboratory assistant in December 1879. He assisted in experiments on the telephone, phonograph, electric railway, [[Edison Ore-Milling Company|iron ore separator]], [[incandescent light bulb|electric lighting]], and other developing inventions. However, Hammer worked primarily on the incandescent electric lamp and was put in charge of tests and records on that device (see [[Hammer Historical Collection of Incandescent Electric Lamps]]). In 1880, he was appointed chief engineer of the Edison Lamp Works. In his first year, the plant under General Manager [[Francis Robbins Upton]] turned out 50,000 lamps. According to Edison, Hammer was "a pioneer of incandescent electric lighting".<ref>{{cite book |title=Thomas Edison: Life of an Electrifying Man |last=Biographiq |year=2008 |isbn=9781599862163 |page=9 |publisher=Filiquarian Publishing, LLC.}}</ref> {{anchor|sprague}}[[Frank J. Sprague]], a competent mathematician and former [[United States Navy|naval officer]], was recruited by [[Edward H. Johnson]] and joined the Edison organization in 1883. One of Sprague's contributions to the Edison Laboratory at Menlo Park was to expand Edison's mathematical methods. Despite the common belief that Edison did not use mathematics, analysis of his notebooks reveal that he was an astute user of mathematical analysis conducted by his assistants such as Francis Robbins Upton, for example, determining the critical parameters of his electric lighting system including lamp resistance by an analysis of [[Ohm's Law]], [[Joule's first law|Joule's Law]] and economics.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://edison.rutgers.edu/ |title=The Thomas A. Edison Papers |publisher=Edison.rutgers.edu |accessdate=January 29, 2009 |archiveurl=https://www.webcitation.org/5QWPkyLnu?url=http://edison.rutgers.edu/ |archivedate=July 22, 2007 |deadurl=no |df= }}</ref>

Nearly all of Edison's patents were utility patents, which were protected for a 17-year period and included inventions or processes that are electrical, mechanical, or chemical in nature. About a dozen were [[design patent]]s, which protect an ornamental design for up to a 14-year period. As in most patents, the inventions he described were improvements over [[prior art]]. The phonograph patent, in contrast, was unprecedented as describing the first device to record and reproduce sounds.<ref>Evans, Harold, "They Made America." Little, Brown and Company, New York, 2004. {{ISBN|978-0-316-27766-2}}. p. 152.</ref>

In just over a decade, Edison's Menlo Park laboratory had expanded to occupy two city blocks. Edison said he wanted the lab to have "a stock of almost every conceivable material".<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.minrec.org/labels.asp?colid=737 |title=Thomas Alva Edison (1847–1931) |last=Wilson |first=Wendell E. |work=The Mineralogical Record |accessdate=February 24, 2013 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://archive.is/20130415080355/http://www.minrec.org/labels.asp?colid=737 |archivedate=April 15, 2013 |df=mdy-all }}</ref> A newspaper article printed in 1887 reveals the seriousness of his claim, stating the lab contained "eight thousand kinds of chemicals, every kind of screw made, every size of needle, every kind of cord or wire, hair of humans, horses, hogs, cows, rabbits, goats, minx, camels ... silk in every texture, cocoons, various kinds of hoofs, shark's teeth, deer horns, tortoise shell ... cork, resin, varnish and oil, ostrich feathers, a peacock's tail, jet, amber, rubber, all ores ..." and the list goes on.<ref>{{cite book | last = Shulman | first = Seth | title = Owning the Future | publisher=Houghton Mifflin Company | year = 1999 | pages = 158–160}}</ref>

Over his desk, Edison displayed a placard with [[Sir Joshua Reynolds]]' famous quotation: "There is no expedient to which a man will not resort to avoid the real labor of thinking."<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,752631,00.html |title=AERONAUTICS: Real Labor |work=[[Time (magazine)|TIME Magazine]] |date=December 8, 1930 |accessdate= January 10, 2008}}</ref> This slogan was reputedly posted at several other locations throughout the facility.

With Menlo Park, Edison had created the first industrial laboratory concerned with creating knowledge and then controlling its application.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.gilderlehrman.org/history-by-era/gilded-age/essays/edison%E2%80%99s-laboratory |title=Edison's Laboratory |last=Israel |first=Paul |work=The Gilder Lehrman Institute of American History |accessdate=February 24, 2013}}</ref> Edison's name is registered on 1,093 patents.<ref name=time1979/>

===Phonograph===
[[File:Edison and phonograph edit1.jpg|thumb|upright|Photograph of Edison with his phonograph (2nd model), taken in [[Mathew Brady]]'s Washington, D.C. studio in April 1878.]]
{{listen|pos=left|filename=Thomas Edison Mary had lamb.ogg|title=Mary Had a Little Lamb|description=Thomas Edison reciting "Mary Had a Little Lamb" in 1929.}}
Edison began his career as an inventor in [[Newark, New Jersey]], with the automatic repeater and his other improved telegraphic devices, but the invention that first gained him wider notice was the [[phonograph]] in 1877.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/edhtml/edbio.html |title=The Life of Thomas A. Edison |work=The Library of Congress |accessdate=February 24, 2013}}</ref> This accomplishment was so unexpected by the public at large as to appear almost magical. Edison became known as "The Wizard of Menlo Park," New Jersey.<ref name="Wizard" />

His first phonograph recorded on [[Tin#Applications|tinfoil]] around a grooved cylinder. Despite its limited [[sound quality]] and that the recordings could be played only a few times, the phonograph made Edison a celebrity. [[Joseph Henry]], president of the National Academy of Sciences and one of the most renowned electrical scientists in the US, described Edison as "the most ingenious inventor in this country... or in any other".<ref>Edison, Thomas A. 1989. ''Menlo Park: The early years, April 1876 – December 1877''. Edited by P. B. Israel, K. A. Nier and L. Carlat. Vol. 3, The papers of Thomas A Edison. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. Doc. 1117</ref> In April 1878, Edison traveled to Washington to demonstrate the phonograph before the National Academy of Sciences, Congressmen, Senators and US President Hayes.<ref>Baldwin, Neil. 2001. ''Edison: Inventing the century''. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. pp.97–98</ref> The ''[[Washington Post]]'' described Edison as a "[[genius]]" and his presentation as "a scene... that will live in history".<ref>Washington Post. 1878. ''Genius before science''. Washington Post, April 19.</ref> Although Edison obtained a patent for the phonograph in 1878,<ref>Edison, Thomas A. 1877. ''Telephones or speaking-telegraphs''. US patent 203,018 filed December 13, 1877, and issued April 30, 1878.</ref> he did little to develop it until [[Alexander Graham Bell]], [[Chichester Bell]], and [[Charles Sumner Tainter|Charles Tainter]] produced a phonograph-like device in the 1880s that used wax-coated cardboard cylinders.

===Carbon telephone transmitter===
In 1876, Edison began work to improve the [[microphone]] for telephones (at that time called a "transmitter") by developing a [[carbon microphone]], which consists of two metal plates separated by granules of carbon that would change resistance with the pressure of sound waves. A steady direct current is passed between the plates through the granules and the varying resistance results in a modulation of the current, creating a varying electric current that reproduces the varying pressure of the sound wave.

Up to that point, microphones, such as the ones developed by [[Johann Philipp Reis]] and [[Alexander Graham Bell]], worked by generating a weak current. The [[carbon microphone]] works by modulating a direct current and, subsequently, using a transformer to transfer the signal so generated to the telephone line. Edison was one of many inventors working on the problem of creating a usable microphone for telephony by having it modulate an electrical current passed through it.<ref name="Adrian Hope 1102, page 378">Adrian Hope, 100 Years of Microphone, New Scientist May 11, 1978 Vol. 78, No. 1102, page 378 ISSN 0262-4079</ref> His work was concurrent with [[Emile Berliner]]'s loose-contact carbon transmitter (who lost a later patent case against Edison over the carbon transmitters invention<ref name="IEEE">''IEEE Global History Network: Carbon Transmitter''. New Brunswick, NJ: IEEE History Center {{cite web|url=http://www.ieeeghn.org/wiki/index.php/Carbon_Transmitter |title=Carbon Transmitter |accessdate=January 14, 2009 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100318043500/http://www.ieeeghn.org/wiki/index.php/Carbon_Transmitter |archivedate=March 18, 2010 |df= }}</ref>) and [[David Edward Hughes]] study and published paper on the physics of loose-contact carbon transmitters (work that Hughes did not bother to patent).<ref name="Adrian Hope 1102, page 378"/><ref>''David Edward Hughes: Concertinist and Inventor'' {{Cite web|url=http://www.angloconcertina.org/files/HughesforWebsite.pdf |accessdate=December 17, 2012 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913132543/http://www.angloconcertina.org/files/HughesforWebsite.pdf |title=David Edward Hughes: Concertinist and Inventor |archivedate=September 13, 2016 |df= }}</ref>

Edison used the carbon microphone concept in 1877 to create an improved telephone for [[Western Union]].<ref name="IEEE"/> In 1886, Edison found a way to improve a [[Bell Telephone Company|Bell Telephone]] microphone, one that used loose-contact ground carbon, with his discovery that it worked far better if the carbon was [[roasted]]. This type was put in use in 1890<ref name="IEEE"/> and was used in all telephones along with the Bell receiver until the 1980s.

===Electric light===
{{Main|Incandescent light bulb}}
[[File:Edison bulb.jpg|thumb|Thomas Edison's first successful light bulb model, used in public demonstration at Menlo Park, December 1879]]

In 1878, Edison began working on a system of electrical illumination, something he hoped could compete with gas and oil based lighting.<ref>Howard B. Rockman, Intellectual Property Law for Engineers and Scientists, John Wiley & Sons – 2004, page 131</ref> He began by tackling the problem of creating a long-lasting incandescent lamp, something that would be needed for indoor use. Many earlier inventors had previously devised incandescent lamps, including [[Alessandro Volta]]'s demonstration of a glowing wire in 1800 and inventions by [[Henry Woodward (inventor)|Henry Woodward]] and [[Mathew Evans]]. Others who developed early and commercially impractical incandescent electric lamps included [[Humphry Davy]], [[James Bowman Lindsay]], [[Moses G. Farmer]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.eliotmaine.org/mosespage.htm |title=Moses G. Farmer, Eliot's Inventor |accessdate=March 11, 2006 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20060619234400/http://eliotmaine.org/mosespage.htm |archivedate=June 19, 2006 |deadurl=yes |df= }}</ref> [[William E. Sawyer]], [[Joseph Swan]], and [[Heinrich Göbel]]. Some of these early bulbs had such flaws as an extremely short life, high expense to produce, and high [[electric current]] drawn, making them difficult to apply on a large scale commercially.<ref name="Israel"/>{{rp|217–218}} Edison realized that to connect a series of electric lights to an economically manageable size and using the necessary thickness of copper wire, he would have to develop a lamp that used a low amount of current. This lamp must have high [[Electrical resistance and conductance|resistance]] and use relatively low voltage (around 110 volts).<ref>Jill Jonnes, Empires Of Light: Edison, Tesla, Westinghouse, And The Race To Electrify The World, Random House – 2004, page 60</ref>

After many experiments, first with [[carbon]] filaments and then with [[platinum]] and other metals, Edison returned to a carbon filament.<ref>{{Cite book |title=The story of great inventions |author=Burns, Elmer Ellsworth |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=r1Q3AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA123#v=onepage&q&f=false |year=1910 |publisher=[[Harper & Brothers]] |accessdate=September 12, 2013}}</ref> The first successful test was on October 22, 1879;<ref name="Israel"/>{{rp|186}}<ref name=nyt1879>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/big/1021.html#article |title=Edison's Electric Light|work=[[The New York Times]]|date=1879 |accessdate=November 23, 2016}}</ref><ref name=Latson>{{cite web|url=http://time.com/3517011/thomas-edison/ |title=Thomas Edison Invents Light Bulb and Myths About Himself|work=TIME.com |first=Jennifer |last=Latson |date=October 21, 2014 |accessdate=November 23, 2016}}</ref><ref name=time1979>{{cite web|url=http://content.time.com/time/subscriber/article/0,33009,947523-1,00.html |title=Business: The Quintessential Innovator|date=October 22, 1979|work=TIME.com |accessdate=November 23, 2016}}</ref> it lasted 13.5 hours.<ref>{{cite web|title=Thomas Edison, Original Letters and Primary Source Documents|url=http://www.shapell.org/btl.aspx?2718806 |publisher=Shapell Manuscript Foundation}}</ref> Edison continued to improve this design and on November 4, 1879, filed for U.S. patent 223,898 (granted on January 27, 1880) for an electric lamp using "a carbon filament or strip coiled and connected to platina contact wires".<ref name="Patent898">{{US patent|0223898}}</ref> This was the first commercially practical incandescent light.<ref>{{cite web | title =In Our Time Archive: Thomas Edison | publisher=[[BBC Radio 4]] | url =http://www.bbc.co.uk/podcasts/series/iots/all#playepisode6}}</ref>

Although the patent described several ways of creating the carbon filament including "cotton and linen thread, wood splints, papers coiled in various ways",<ref name="Patent898" /> it was not until several months after the patent was granted that Edison and his team discovered a [[carbonization|carbonized]] [[bamboo]] filament that could last over 1,200 hours. The idea of using this particular raw material originated from Edison's recalling his examination of a few threads from a bamboo fishing pole while relaxing on the shore of Battle Lake in the present-day state of [[Wyoming]], where he and other members of a scientific team had traveled so that they could clearly observe a total eclipse of the sun on July 29, 1878, from the [[Continental Divide]].<ref>{{cite book
| last = Flannery
| first = L. G. (Pat)
| title = John Hunton's Diary, Volume 3
| year = 1960
| pages = 68, 69
| url =
| isbn = }}
</ref>

[[File:Light bulb Edison 2.jpg|thumb|U.S. Patent#223898: Electric-Lamp. Issued January 27, 1880.]]
In 1878, Edison formed the [[Edison Electric Light Company]] in New York City with several financiers, including [[J. P. Morgan]], [[Spencer Trask]],<ref>"Handbook of Research on Venture Capital". Colin Mason. Edward Elgar Publishing. January 1, 2012. pg 17</ref> and the members of the [[Vanderbilt family]]. Edison made the first public demonstration of his incandescent light bulb on December 31, 1879, in Menlo Park. It was during this time that he said: "We will make electricity so cheap that only the rich will burn candles."<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.sloan-c.org/conference/proceedings/1996/doc/96_gomory.doc |title=Keynote Address – Second International ALN1 Conference (PDF) |archiveurl=https://www.webcitation.org/5umTbqS3d?url=http://www.sloan-c.org/conference/proceedings/1996/doc/96_gomory.doc |archivedate=December 6, 2010 |deadurl=yes |df= }}</ref>

[[File:SS Columbia Undated Photograph.png|thumb|left|The [[Oregon Railroad and Navigation Company]]'s new steamship, the [[SS Columbia (1880)|''Columbia'']], was the first commercial application for Edison's incandescent light bulb in 1880.]]
[[Henry Villard]], president of the [[Oregon Railroad and Navigation Company]], attended Edison's 1879 demonstration. Villard was impressed and requested Edison install his electric lighting system aboard Villard's company's new steamer, the [[SS Columbia (1880)|''Columbia'']]. Although hesitant at first, Edison agreed to Villard's request. Most of the work was completed in May 1880, and the ''Columbia'' went to [[New York City]], where Edison and his personnel installed ''Columbia'''s new lighting system. The ''Columbia'' was Edison's first commercial application for his incandescent light bulb. The Edison equipment was removed from ''Columbia'' in 1895.<ref>Jehl, Francis [https://books.google.com/books?id=OkL1Smk4uiAC&pg=PA563&dq=SS+Columbia+(1880) Menlo Park reminiscences : written in Edison's restored Menlo Park laboratory], Henry Ford Museum and Greenfield Village, Whitefish, Mass, Kessinger Publishing, July 1, 2002, page 564</ref><ref name = "Dalton">Dalton, Anthony
[https://books.google.com/books?id=LOQ67VeU3WwC&pg=PA63&dq=SS+Columbia+(1880) A long, dangerous coastline: shipwreck tales from Alaska to California]
Heritage House Publishing Company, February 1, 2011 – 128 pages</ref><ref>Swann, p. 242.</ref><ref name="Revolution">{{cite web | url=http://americanhistory.si.edu/lighting/19thcent/promo19.htm | title=Lighting A Revolution: 19th Century Promotion | publisher=Smithsonian Institution | accessdate=July 23, 2013}}</ref>

[[Lewis Latimer]] joined the Edison Electric Light Company in 1884. Latimer had received a patent in January 1881 for the "Process of Manufacturing Carbons", an improved method for the production of carbon filaments for light bulbs. Latimer worked as an engineer, a draftsman and an expert witness in patent litigation on electric lights.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nps.gov/edis/forkids/the-gifted-men-who-worked-for-edison.htm |title=Lewis Howard Latimer |accessdate=June 10, 2007 |publisher=[[National Park Service]] }}</ref>

[[George Westinghouse]]'s company bought [[Philip Diehl (inventor)|Philip Diehl's]] competing [[Electrodeless lamp|induction lamp]] patent rights (1882) for $25,000, forcing the holders of the Edison patent to charge a more reasonable rate for the use of the Edison patent rights and lowering the price of the electric lamp.<ref name="EDJ1929">"Diehl's Lamp Hit Edison Monopoly," Elizabeth Daily Journal, Friday Evening, October 25, 1929</ref>

On October 8, 1883, the [[United States Patent and Trademark Office|US patent office]] ruled that Edison's patent was based on the work of [[William E. Sawyer]] and was, therefore, invalid. Litigation continued for nearly six years, until October 6, 1889, when a judge ruled that Edison's electric light improvement claim for "a filament of carbon of high resistance" was valid.<ref>{{cite book |title=Thomas Edison: Life of an Electrifying Man |last=Biographiq |year=2008 |isbn=9781599862163 |page=15 |publisher=Filiquarian Publishing, LLC.}}</ref> To avoid a possible court battle with Joseph Swan, whose British patent had been awarded a year before Edison's, he and Swan formed a joint company called [[Ediswan]] to manufacture and market the invention in Britain.

[[Mahen Theatre]] in [[Brno]] (in what is now the Czech Republic), opened in 1882, and was the first public building in the world to use Edison's electric lamps. [[Francis Jehl]], Edison's assistant in the invention of the lamp, supervised the installation.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ndbrno.cz/en/about-us/theatre-buildings/mahen-theatre/history-of-mahen-theatre/history-mt/ |title=About the Memory of a Theatre |accessdate=December 30, 2007 |work=National Theatre Brno |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080119092027/http://www.ndbrno.cz/en/about-us/theatre-buildings/mahen-theatre/history-of-mahen-theatre/history-mt/ |archivedate=January 19, 2008 |deadurl=yes |df= }}</ref> In September 2010, a sculpture of three giant light bulbs was erected in Brno, in front of the theatre.<ref>{{cite web |author=Michal Kašpárek |url=http://brnonow.com/2010/09/light-bulbs-edison/ |title=Sculpture of three giant light bulbs: in memory of Thomas Alva Edison |publisher=Brnonow.com |date=September 8, 2010 |accessdate=December 31, 2013 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131026200319/http://brnonow.com/2010/09/light-bulbs-edison/ |archivedate=October 26, 2013 |df=mdy-all }}</ref>

===Electric power distribution===
After devising a commercially viable electric light bulb on October 21, 1879, Edison developed an electric "[[Public utility|utility]]" to compete with the existing gas light utilities.<ref>Ahmad Faruqui, Kelly Eakin, Pricing in Competitive Electricity Markets, Springer Science & Business Media – 2000, page 67</ref> On December 17, 1880, he founded the [[Edison Illuminating Company]], and during the 1880s, he patented a system for [[electricity distribution]]. The company established the first investor-owned electric utility in 1882 on [[Pearl Street Station]], New York City. On September 4, 1882, Edison switched on his [[Pearl Street (Manhattan)|Pearl Street]] generating station's electrical power distribution system, which provided 110 volts [[direct current]] (DC) to 59 customers in lower [[Manhattan]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.coned.com/history/electricity.asp |title=A brief history of Con Edison:"Electricity" |publisher=Coned.com |date=January 1, 1998 |accessdate=December 31, 2013 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20121030164753/http://www.coned.com/history/electricity.asp |archivedate=October 30, 2012 |df= }}</ref>

In January 1882, Edison switched on the first steam-generating power station at [[Holborn Viaduct]] in London. The DC supply system provided electricity supplies to street lamps and several private dwellings within a short distance of the station. On January 19, 1883, the first standardized incandescent electric lighting system employing [[overhead lines|overhead wires]] began service in [[Roselle, New Jersey]].

===War of currents===
{{Main|War of Currents}}
[[File:PyramidParthenon.jpg|thumb|upright=1.15|Extravagant displays of electric lights quickly became a feature of public events, as in this picture from the 1897 [[Tennessee Centennial Exposition]].]]
As Edison expanded his [[direct current]] (DC) power delivery system, he received stiff competition from companies installing [[alternating current]] (AC) systems. From the early 1880s AC [[arc lamp|arc lighting]] systems for streets and large spaces had been an expanding business in the US. With the development of [[transformer]]s in Europe and by [[Westinghouse Electric (1886)|Westinghouse Electric]] in the US in 1885–1886, it became possible to transmit AC long distances over thinner and cheaper wires, and "step down" the voltage at the destination for distribution to users. This allowed AC to be used in street lighting and in lighting for small business and domestic customers, the market Edison's patented low voltage DC incandescent lamp system was designed to supply.<ref>Jill Jonnes, Empires Of Light: Edison, Tesla, Westinghouse, And The Race To Electrify The World, Random House – 2004, pages 54–60</ref> Edison's DC empire suffered from one of its chief drawbacks: it was suitable only for the high density of customers found in large cities. Edison's DC plants could not deliver electricity to customers more than one mile from the plant, and left a patchwork of unsupplied customers between plants. Small cities and rural areas could not afford an Edison style system at all, leaving a large part of the market without electrical service. AC companies expanded into this gap.

Edison expressed views that AC was unworkable and the high voltages used were dangerous. As [[George Westinghouse]] installed his first AC systems in 1886, Thomas Edison struck out personally against his chief rival stating, "''Just as certain as death, Westinghouse will kill a customer within six months after he puts in a system of any size. He has got a new thing and it will require a great deal of experimenting to get it working practically.''"<ref>Maury Klein, The Power Makers: Steam, Electricity, and the Men Who Invented Modern America, Bloomsbury Publishing USA – 2008, page 257</ref> Many reasons have been suggested for Edison's anti-AC stance. One notion is that the inventor could not grasp the more abstract theories behind AC and was trying to avoid developing a system he did not understand. Edison also appeared to have been worried about the high voltage from misinstalled AC systems killing customers and hurting the sales of electric power systems in general.<ref>Empires Of Light: Edison, Tesla, Westinghouse, And The Race To Electrify The By Jill Jonnes page 146</ref> Primary was the fact that Edison Electric based their design on low voltage DC and switching a standard after they had installed over 100 systems was, in Edison's mind, out of the question. By the end of 1887, Edison Electric was losing market share to Westinghouse, who had built 68 AC-based power stations to Edison's 121 DC-based stations. To make matters worse for Edison, the [[Thomson-Houston Electric Company]] of Lynn, Massachusetts (another AC-based competitor) built 22 power stations.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nq0Le9FfXlAC&pg=PT68&dq=Thomson+Houston+westinghouse+edison+1887&hl=en&sa=X&ei=xhPhVKfmB-aHsQTkyoEY&ved=0CCMQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=Thomson%20Houston%20westinghouse%20edison%201887&f=false|title=Edison to Enron|publisher=}}</ref>

Parallel to expanding competition between Edison and the AC companies was rising public furor over a series of deaths in the spring of 1888 caused by pole mounted high voltage alternating current lines. This turned into a media frenzy against high voltage alternating current and the seemingly greedy and callous lighting companies that used it.<ref>Jill Jonnes, Empires Of Light: Edison, Tesla, Westinghouse, And The Race To Electrify The World, Random House – 2004, page 143</ref><ref>Mark Essig, Edison and the Electric Chair: A Story of Light and Death, Bloomsbury Publishing USA – 2009, pages 139–140</ref> Edison took advantage of the public perception of AC as dangerous, and joined with self-styled New York anti-AC crusader [[Harold P. Brown]] in a [[propaganda]] campaign, aiding Brown in the public electrocution of animals with AC, and supported legislation to control and severely limit AC installations and voltages (to the point of making it an ineffective power delivery system) in what was now being referred to as a [[War of Currents|"battle of currents"]]. The development of the [[electric chair]] was used in an attempt to portray AC as having a greater lethal potential than DC and [[Smear campaign|smear]] Westinghouse at the same time via Edison colluding with Brown and Westinghouse's chief AC rival, the Thomson-Houston Electric Company, to make sure the first electric chair was powered by a Westinghouse AC generator.

Thomas Edison's staunch anti-AC tactics were not sitting well with his own stockholders. By the early 1890s, Edison's company was generating much smaller profits than its AC rivals, and the War of Currents would come to an end in 1892 with Edison forced out of controlling his own company. That year, the financier [[J.P. Morgan]] engineered a merger of Edison General Electric with Thomson-Houston that put the board of Thomson-Houston in charge of the new company called [[General Electric]]. General Electric now controlled three-quarters of the US electrical business and would compete with Westinghouse for the AC market.<ref>Mark Essig, Edison and the Electric Chair: A Story of Light and Death, Bloomsbury Publishing USA – 2009, page 268</ref><ref>Robert L. Bradley Jr., Edison to Enron: Energy Markets and Political Strategies, John Wiley & Sons – 2011, pages 28–29</ref>

==West Orange and Fort Myers (1886–1931)==
[[File:Edison battery exhibit, 1915.jpg|thumb|Thomas A. Edison Industries Exhibit, Primary Battery section, 1915]]
Edison moved from Menlo Park after the death of his first wife, Mary, in 1884, and purchased a home known as "[[Thomas Edison National Historical Park|Glenmont]]" in 1886 as a wedding gift for his second wife, Mina, in [[Llewellyn Park]] in [[West Orange, New Jersey]]. In 1885, Thomas Edison bought property in [[Fort Myers, Florida|Fort Myers]], Florida, and built what was later called [[Seminole Lodge (Thomas Edison)|Seminole Lodge]] as a winter retreat. Edison and Mina spent many winters at their home in Fort Myers, and Edison tried to find a domestic source of natural rubber.<ref name="Reisert">{{cite magazine|last1=Reisert|first1=Sarah|title= Home Away from Home |magazine=Distillations|date=2016|volume=2|issue=2|pages=46–47|url=https://www.sciencehistory.org/distillations/magazine/home-away-from-home|accessdate=22 March 2018}}</ref>

Due to the security concerns around [[World War I]], Edison suggested forming a science and industry committee to provide advice and research to the US military, and he headed the [[Naval Consulting Board]] in 1915.<ref name=board>{{cite web |url=http://www.nrl.navy.mil/about-nrl/history/edison/ |title=Thomas Edison's Vision |date= |accessdate=December 18, 2013 |quote=Secretary of the Navy Josephus Daniels seized the opportunity created by Edison's public comments to enlist Edison's support. He agreed to serve as the head of a new body of civilian experts – the Naval Consulting Board – to advise the Navy on science and technology.|publisher=[[United States Navy]] |location= }}</ref>

Edison became concerned with America's reliance on foreign supply of rubber and was determined to find a native supply of rubber. Edison's work on rubber took place largely at his research laboratory in Fort Myers, which has been designated as a National Historic Chemical Landmark.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.edisonfordwinterestates.org/about/what-youll-see/edison-s-botanic-research-laboratory/|title=Edison Botanic Research Laboratory – Edison & Ford Winter Estates – (239) 334-7419|publisher=|accessdate=December 30, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170203203552/http://www.edisonfordwinterestates.org/about/what-youll-see/edison-s-botanic-research-laboratory/#|archive-date=February 3, 2017|dead-url=yes|df=mdy-all}}</ref>

[[File:EFWE 2008.04.01 .jpg|thumb|From left to right: Henry Ford, Thomas Edison, and Harvey Firestone, the three partners of the Edison Botanic Research Corporation.]]

The laboratory was built after Thomas Edison, Henry Ford, and Harvey Firestone pulled together $75,000 to form the Edison Botanical Research Corporation. Initially, only Ford and Firestone were to contribute funds to the project while Edison did all the research. Edison, however, wished to contribute $25,000 as well. Edison did the majority of the research and planting, sending results and sample rubber residues to his West Orange Lab. Edison employed a two-part [[Acid-base extraction]], to derive latex from the plant material after it was dried and crushed to a powder.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://communities.acs.org/community/science/sustainability/green-chemistry-nexus-blog/blog/2014/05/21/thomas-edison-s-botanical-laboratory-to-be-recognized-as-a-national-historic-chemical-landmark-in-fort-myers|title=Green Chemistry: The Nexus Blog: Thomas Edison'... {{!}} ACS Network|website=communities.acs.org|access-date=August 1, 2016}}</ref> After testing 17,000 plant samples, he eventually found an adequate source in the Goldenrod plant. Edison decided on ''[[Solidago leavenworthii]]'', also known as Leavenworth's Goldenrod. The plant, which normally grows roughly 3–4 feet tall with a 5% latex yield, was adapted by Edison through cross-breeding to produce plants twice the size and with a latex yield of 12%.<ref>Growing American Rubber by Mark Finlay</ref>

==Other inventions and projects==

===Fluoroscopy===
Edison is credited with designing and producing the first commercially available [[fluoroscopy|fluoroscope]], a machine that uses [[X-rays]] to take [[radiographs]]. Until Edison discovered that [[Scheelite|calcium tungstate]] fluoroscopy screens produced brighter images than the barium [[platinocyanide]] screens originally used by [[Wilhelm Röntgen]], the technology was capable of producing only very faint images.

The fundamental design of Edison's fluoroscope is still in use today, although Edison abandoned the project after nearly losing his own eyesight and seriously injuring his assistant, [[Clarence Madison Dally|Clarence Dally]]. Dally made himself an enthusiastic human guinea pig for the fluoroscopy project and was exposed to a poisonous dose of radiation. He later died of injuries related to the exposure. In 1903, a shaken Edison said: "Don't talk to me about X-rays, I am afraid of them."<ref>Duke University Rare Book, Manuscript, and Special Collections Library: Edison fears the hidden perils of the x-rays. New York Worldb/, August 3, 1903, Durham, NC.</ref>

===Tasimeter===

Edison invented a highly sensitive device, that he named the [[tasimeter]], which measured [[infrared|infrared radiation]]. His impetus for its creation was the desire to measure the heat from the solar [[corona]] during the total [[Solar eclipse of July 29, 1878]].

===Telegraph improvements===
{{original research|section|date=December 2016}}

The key to Edison's fortunes was telegraphy. With knowledge gained from years of working as a telegraph operator, he learned the basics of electricity. This allowed him to make his early fortune with the [[ticker tape|stock ticker]], the first electricity-based broadcast system. On August 9, 1892, Edison received a patent for a two-way telegraph.

===Motion pictures===
[[File:Leonard Cushing Kinetograph 1894.ogv|thumb|The June 1894 Leonard–Cushing bout. Each of the six one-minute rounds recorded by the Kinetoscope was made available to exhibitors for $22.50.<ref>[http://rs6.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?ammem/papr:@filreq(@field(NUMBER+@band(edmp+4026))+@field(COLLID+edison)) Leonard–Cushing fight] Part of the Library of Congress/''Inventing Entertainment'' educational website. Retrieved December 14, 2006.</ref> Customers who watched the final round saw Leonard score a knockdown.]]
Edison was also granted a patent for the motion picture camera or "Kinetograph". He did the electromechanical design while his employee [[W. K. L. Dickson]], a photographer, worked on the photographic and optical development. Much of the credit for the invention belongs to Dickson.<ref name=Israel /> In 1891, Thomas Edison built a [[Kinetoscope]] or peep-hole viewer. This device was installed in penny arcades, where people could watch short, simple films. The kinetograph and kinetoscope were both first publicly exhibited May 20, 1891.<ref>{{cite web|title=History of Edison Motion Pictures |url=http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/edhtml/edmvhist.html |accessdate=October 14, 2007 |archiveurl=https://www.webcitation.org/5umTfhBN2?url=http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/edhtml/edmvhist.html |archivedate=December 6, 2010 |deadurl=no |df= }}</ref>

In April 1896, [[Thomas Armat]]'s [[Vitascope]], manufactured by the Edison factory and marketed in Edison's name, was used to project motion pictures in public screenings in New York City. Later, he exhibited motion pictures with voice soundtrack on cylinder recordings, mechanically synchronized with the film.

Officially the kinetoscope entered Europe when the rich American Businessman [[Irving T. Bush]] (1869–1948) bought from the Continental Commerce Company of Frank Z. Maguire and Joseph D. Baucus a dozen machines. Bush placed from October 17, 1894, the first kinetoscopes in London. At the same time, the French company Kinétoscope Edison Michel et Alexis Werner bought these machines for the market in France. In the last three months of 1894, the Continental Commerce Company sold hundreds of kinetoscopes in Europe (i.e. the Netherlands and Italy). In Germany and in [[Austria-Hungary]], the kinetoscope was introduced by the Deutsche-österreichische-Edison-Kinetoscop Gesellschaft, founded by the Ludwig Stollwerck<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.victorian-cinema.net/stollwerck.htm |title=Martin Loiperdinger. ''Film & Schokolade. Stollwercks Geschäfte mit lebenden Bildern''. KINtop Schriften Stroemfeld Verlag, Frankfurt am Main, Basel 1999 ISBN 3-87877-764-7 (Buch) ISBN 3-87877-760-4 (Buch und Videocassette) |publisher=Victorian-cinema.net |accessdate=January 29, 2009 |archiveurl=https://www.webcitation.org/5umTfv73B?url=http://www.victorian-cinema.net/stollwerck.htm |archivedate=December 6, 2010 |deadurl=no |df= }}</ref> of the Schokoladen-Süsswarenfabrik Stollwerck & Co of Cologne.

The first kinetoscopes arrived in Belgium at the [[Fairs]] in early 1895. The Edison's Kinétoscope Français, a Belgian company, was founded in Brussels on January 15, 1895, with the rights to sell the kinetoscopes in Monaco, France and the French colonies. The main investors in this company were Belgian industrialists.<ref name="Imdb.com">{{cite web|url=https://www.imdb.com/company/co0111244/ |title=Guido Convents, ''Van Kinetoscoop tot Cafe-Cine de Eerste Jaren van de Film in Belgie, 1894–1908, pp. 33–69.'' Universitaire Pers Leuven. Leuven: 2000. Guido Convents, "'Edison's Kinetscope in Belgium, or, Scientists, Admirers, Businessmen, Industrialists and Crooks", pp. 249–258. in C. Dupré la Tour, A. Gaudreault, R. Pearson (Ed.) ''Cinema at the Turn of the Century''. Québec, 1999 |publisher=Imdb.com |accessdate=January 29, 2009 |archiveurl=https://www.webcitation.org/5umTgFAJO?url=http://www.imdb.com/company/co0111244/ |archivedate=December 6, 2010 |deadurl=no |df= }}</ref>

On May 14, 1895, the Edison's Kinétoscope Belge was founded in Brussels. The businessman Ladislas-Victor Lewitzki, living in London but active in Belgium and France, took the initiative in starting this business. He had contacts with [[Leon Gaumont]] and the [[American Mutoscope and Biograph]] Co. In 1898, he also became a shareholder of the Biograph and Mutoscope Company for France.<ref name="Imdb.com"/>

[[Edison Studios|Edison's film studio]] made close to 1,200 films. The majority of the productions were short films showing everything from acrobats to parades to fire calls including titles such as ''[[Fred Ott's Sneeze]]'' (1894), ''[[The Kiss (1896 film)|The Kiss]]'' (1896), ''[[The Great Train Robbery (1903 film)|The Great Train Robbery]]'' (1903), ''[[Alice's Adventures in Wonderland (1910 film)|Alice's Adventures in Wonderland]]'' (1910), and the first ''[[Frankenstein (1910 film)|Frankenstein]]'' film in 1910. In 1903, when the owners of [[Luna Park, Coney Island (1903)|Luna Park, Coney Island]] announced they would execute [[Topsy (elephant)|Topsy the elephant]] by strangulation, poisoning, and electrocution (with the electrocution part ultimately killing the elephant), Edison Manufacturing sent a crew to film it, releasing it that same year with the title ''[[Electrocuting an Elephant]]''.
[[File:A day with Thomas A. Edison.webm|thumb|left|thumbtime=1|upright=1.1| ''A Day with Thomas Edison'' (1922)]]
As the film business expanded, competing exhibitors routinely copied and exhibited each other's films.<ref>[http://www.victorian-cinema.net/lubin.htm Siegmund Lubin (1851–1923)], Who's Who of Victorian Cinema. Retrieved August 20, 2007.</ref> To better protect the copyrights on his films, Edison deposited prints of them on long strips of [[photographic paper]] with the [[U.S. copyright office]]. Many of these paper prints survived longer and in better condition than the actual films of that era.<ref>[http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/edhtml/edmvhist1.html#EE "History of Edison Motion Pictures: Early Edison Motion Picture Production (1892–1895)"], Memory.loc.gov, [[Library of Congress]]. Retrieved August 20, 2007.</ref>

In 1908, Edison started the [[Motion Picture Patents Company]], which was a conglomerate of nine major film studios (commonly known as the Edison Trust). Thomas Edison was the first honorary fellow of the [[Acoustical Society of America]], which was founded in 1929.

Edison said his favorite movie was ''[[The Birth of a Nation]]''. He thought that [[talkies]] had "spoiled everything" for him. "There isn't any good acting on the screen. They concentrate on the voice now and have forgotten how to act. I can sense it more than you because I am deaf."<ref name="condensed1042">Reader's Digest, March 1930, pp. 1042–1044, "Living With a Genius", condensed from The American Magazine February 1930</ref> His favorite stars were [[Mary Pickford]] and [[Clara Bow]].<ref>"Edison Wears Silk Nightshirt, Hates Talkies, Writes Wife", Capital Times, October 30, 1930</ref>

===Mining===
Starting in the late 1870s, Thomas Edison became interested and involved with mining. High-grade iron ore was scarce on the east coast of the United States and Edison tried to mine low-grade ore. Edison developed a process using rollers and crushers that could pulverize rocks up to 10 tons. The dust was then sent between three giant magnets that would pull the iron ore from the dust. Despite the failure of his mining company, the [[Edison Ore-Milling Company|Edison Ore Milling Company]], Edison used some of the materials and equipment to produce cement.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://edison.rutgers.edu/list.htm#Cement|title=Edison's Companies – The Edison Papers|publisher=|accessdate=December 30, 2016}}</ref>

In 1901, Edison visited an industrial exhibition in the [[Greater Sudbury|Sudbury]] area in Ontario, Canada and thought nickel and cobalt deposits there could be used in his production of electrical equipment. He returned as a mining prospector and is credited with the original discovery of the [[Falconbridge, Greater Sudbury, Ontario|Falconbridge]] ore body. His attempts to mine the ore body were not successful, and he abandoned his mining claim in 1903.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.sudburymuseums.ca/index.cfm?app=w_vmuseum&lang=en&currID=2031&parID=2029 |title=Thomas Edison |accessdate=December 30, 2007 |work=[[Greater Sudbury Heritage Museums]] |archiveurl=https://www.webcitation.org/5umTghSyU?url=http://www.sudburymuseums.ca/index.cfm?app=w_vmuseum&lang=en&currID=2031&parID=2029 |archivedate=December 6, 2010 |deadurl=no |df= }}</ref> A street in Falconbridge, as well as the [[Edison Building (Falconbridge)|Edison Building]], which served as the head office of [[Falconbridge Ltd.|Falconbridge Mines]], are named for him.

===Battery===
[[File:Edison Storage Battery Company 1903.JPG|thumb|Share of the Edison Storage Battery Company, issued 19. October 1903]]
The Edison Storage Battery Company was founded in 1901. With this company, Edison exploited his invention of the accumulator. In 1904, 450 people already worked for the company. The first accumulators were produced for electric cars, but there were several defects. Several customers complained about the products. When the capital of the company was spent, Edison paid for the company with his private money. Edison did not demonstrate a mature product until 1910: a nickel-iron-battery with lye as the electrolyte.

===Chemicals===

At the start of [[World War I]], the American chemical industry was primitive. Most chemicals were imported from Europe. The outbreak of war in August, 1914, resulted in an immediate shortage of imported chemicals. One of particular importance to Edison was [[phenol]], which was used to make [[phonograph]] records–presumably as [[phenolic resins]] of the [[Bakelite]] type.

At the time, phenol came from [[coal]] as a by-product of [[coke oven]] gases or [[manufactured gas]] for [[gaslighting]]. Phenol could be nitrated to [[picric acid]] and converted to [[ammonium picrate]], a shock resistant [[high explosive]] suitable for use in artillery shells. The best telling of the phenol story is found in “The Aspirin Wars.”<ref>Mann, Charles C. And Plummer, Mark L (1991)., The Aspirin Wars: Money, Medicine, and 100 Years of Rampant Competition, Alfred A. Knopf, NY, isbn 0-394-57894-5, p 38-40</ref> Most phenol had been imported from [[United Kingdom|Britain]], but with war, [[Parliament]] blocked exports and diverted most to production of [[ammonium picrate]]. Britain also blockaded supplies from Germany.

Edison responded by undertaking production of phenol at his [[Silver Lake, NJ]], facility using processes developed by his chemists.<ref>Conot, Robert (1979), A Streak of Luck: The Life & Legend of Thomas Alva Edison, Seaview Books, NY, p 413-4</ref> He built two plants with a capacity of six tons of phenol per day. Production began the first week of September, one month after hostilities began in Europe. He built two plants to produce raw material [[benzene]] at [[Johnstown, PA]] and [[Bessemer, AL]], replacing supplies previously from Germany. Edison also manufactured [[aniline dyes]], which previously had been supplied by the [[German dye trust]]. Other wartime products include [[xylene]], [[p-phenylenediamine]], [[shellac]], and [[pyrax]]. Wartime shortages made these ventures profitable. In 1915, his production capacity was fully committed by midyear.

Phenol was a critical material because two derivatives were in high growth phases. [[Bakelite]], the original [[thermoset]] [[plastic]], had been invented in 1909. [[Aspirin]], too was a phenol derivative. Invented in 1899 had become a block buster drug. [[Bayer]] had acquired a plant to manufacture in the US in [[Rensselaer, NY]], but struggled to find phenol to keep their plant running during the war. Edison was able to oblige.

Bayer relied on [[Chemische Fabrik von Heyden]], in [[Piscataway, NJ]], to convert phenol to salicylic acid, which they converted to aspirin. (See [[Great Phenol]] plot.) It is said that German companies bought up supplies of phenol to block production of [[ammonium picrate]]. Edison preferred not to sell phenol for military uses. He sold his surplus to Bayer, who had it converted to [[salicylic acid]] by Heyden, some of which was exported.

==Final years and death==
===Final years===
[[File:Ford Edison Firestone1.jpg|thumb|left|[[Henry Ford]], Thomas Edison, and [[Harvey Firestone]], respectively. [[Ft. Myers]], Florida, February 11, 1929]]

[[Henry Ford]], the automobile magnate, later lived a few hundred feet away from Edison at his winter retreat in Fort Myers. Ford once worked as an engineer for the Edison Illuminating Company of Detroit and met Edison at a convention of affiliated Edison illuminating companies in Brooklyn, NY in 1896. Edison was impressed with Ford's internal combustion engine automobile and encouraged its developments. They were friends until Edison's death. Edison and Ford undertook annual motor camping trips from 1914 to 1924. Harvey Firestone and John Burroughs also participated.

In 1928, Edison joined the Fort Myers [[Civitan International|Civitan Club]]. He believed strongly in the organization, writing that "The Civitan Club is doing things—big things—for the community, state, and nation, and I certainly consider it an honor to be numbered in its ranks."<ref>{{cite book |last= Armbrester |first= Margaret E. |title= The Civitan Story |year= 1992 |publisher=Ebsco Media |location= Birmingham, AL |page= 34 }}</ref> He was an active member in the club until his death, sometimes bringing Henry Ford to the club's meetings.

Edison was active in business right up to the end. Just months before his death, the [[Delaware, Lackawanna and Western Railroad|Lackawanna Railroad]] inaugurated suburban electric train service from [[Hoboken, New Jersey|Hoboken]] to [[Montclair, New Jersey|Montclair]], [[Dover, New Jersey|Dover]], and [[Gladstone, New Jersey]]. Electrical transmission for this service was by means of an overhead catenary system using direct current, which Edison had championed. Despite his frail condition, Edison was at the throttle of the first electric MU (Multiple-Unit) train to depart Lackawanna Terminal in Hoboken in September 1930, driving the train the first mile through Hoboken yard on its way to [[South Orange, NJ|South Orange]].<ref name="Holland 2001">{{Holland-Classic}}</ref>

This fleet of cars would serve commuters in northern New Jersey for the next 54 years until their retirement in 1984. A plaque commemorating Edison's inaugural ride can be seen today in the waiting room of Lackawanna Terminal in Hoboken, which is presently operated by [[New Jersey Transit]].<ref name="Holland 2001"/>

Edison was said to have been influenced by a popular [[Food faddism|fad diet]] in his last few years; "the only liquid he consumed was a pint of milk every three hours".<ref name="Israel">{{cite book|last=Israel|first=Paul|authorlink=Paul Israel (historian)|title=Edison: A Life of Invention|year=2000|publisher=[[John Wiley & Sons]]|isbn=978-0-471-36270-8}}</ref> He is reported to have believed this diet would restore his health. However, this tale is doubtful. In 1930, the year before Edison died, Mina said in an interview about him, "correct eating is one of his greatest hobbies." She also said that during one of his periodic "great scientific adventures", Edison would be up at 7:00, have breakfast at 8:00, and be rarely home for lunch or dinner, implying that he continued to have all three.<ref name="condensed1042"/>

Edison became the owner of his [[Milan, Ohio]], birthplace in 1906. On his last visit, in 1923, he was reportedly shocked to find his old home still lit by lamps and candles.{{citation needed|date=October 2014}}

===Death===
Edison died of complications of diabetes on October 18, 1931, in his home, "Glenmont" in [[Llewellyn Park]] in [[West Orange, New Jersey]], which he had purchased in 1886 as a wedding gift for Mina. Rev. [[Stephen J. Herben]] officiated at the funeral;<ref>{{cite news | ref = | last = | first = | title = Rev. S. Herben Dead at 75 | newspaper = Plainfield Courier-News | location = Plainfield, New Jersey | page = 11 | date = 23 February 1937 | url = https://www.newspapers.com/clip/18254003 | via = [[Newspapers.com]] }} {{free access}}</ref> Edison is buried behind the home.<ref>{{cite news|title=Thomas Edison Dies in Coma at 84; Family With Him as the End Comes; Inventor Succumbs at 3:24 A.M. After Fight for Life Since He Was Stricken on August 1. World-Wide Tribute Is Paid to Him as a Benefactor of Mankind|quote=[[West Orange, New Jersey]], Sunday, October 18, 1931. Thomas Alva Edison died at 3:24 o'clock this morning at his home, Glenmont, in the Llewellyn Park section of this city. The great inventor, the fruits of whose genius so magically transformed the everyday world, was 84 years and 8 months old.|work=New York Times|date=October 18, 1931}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Where are they buried? How did they die?|last=Benoit|first=Tod|year=2003|publisher=Black Dog & Leventhal|isbn=978-1-57912-678-0|page=560}}</ref>

Edison's last breath is reportedly contained in a test tube at [[The Henry Ford]] museum near Detroit. Ford reportedly convinced [[Charles Edison]] to seal a test tube of air in the inventor's room shortly after his death, as a memento.<ref>[http://www.straightdope.com/classics/a2_128a.html "Is Thomas Edison's last breath preserved in a test tube in the Henry Ford Museum?"], [[The Straight Dope]], September 11, 1987. Retrieved August 20, 2007.</ref> A plaster [[death mask]] and casts of Edison's hands were also made.<ref>Neil Baldwin, Edison: Inventing the Century, University of Chicago Press – 2001, 408</ref> Mina died in 1947.

==Marriages and children==
On December 25, 1871, at the age of twenty-four, Edison married 16-year-old Mary Stilwell (1855–1884), whom he had met two months earlier; she was an employee at one of his shops. They had three children:
* Marion Estelle Edison (1873–1965), nicknamed "Dot"<ref>Baldwin 1995, p.60</ref>
* Thomas Alva Edison Jr. (1876–1935), nicknamed "Dash"<ref>Baldwin 1995, p.67</ref>
* William Leslie Edison (1878–1937) Inventor, graduate of the Sheffield Scientific School at Yale, 1900.<ref>{{cite news |coauthors= |title=Older Son To Sue To Void Edison Will; William, Second Child Of The Counsel |url= |quote=The will of Thomas A. Edison, filed in Newark last Thursday, which leaves the bulk of the inventor's $12 million estate to the sons of his second wife, was attacked as unfair yesterday by William L. Edison, second son of the first wife, who announced at the same time that he would sue to break it. |work=New York Times |date=October 31, 1931}}</ref>

Mary Edison died at age 29 on August 9, 1884, of unknown causes: possibly from a [[brain tumor]]<ref>[http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/edhtml/edbio.html "The Life of Thomas Edison"], ''American Memory'', Library of Congress, Retrieved March 3, 2009.</ref> or a [[morphine overdose]]. Doctors frequently prescribed morphine to women in those years to treat a variety of causes, and researchers believe that her symptoms could have been from morphine poisoning.<ref name="Rutgers">[http://news.rutgers.edu/medrel/research/rh-2011/thomas-edison2019s-f-20111115 "Thomas Edison's First Wife May Have Died of a Morphine Overdose"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111119015854/http://news.rutgers.edu/medrel/research/rh-2011/thomas-edison2019s-f-20111115/ |date=November 19, 2011 }}, ''Rutgers Today''. Retrieved November 18, 2011</ref>

Edison generally preferred spending time in the laboratory to being with his family.<ref name=time1979/>

[[File:Mina Edison 1906.jpg|thumb|Mina Miller Edison in 1906]]
On February 24, 1886, at the age of thirty-nine, Edison married the 20-year-old Mina Miller (1865–1947) in [[Akron, Ohio]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ieeeghn.org/wiki/index.php/Thomas_Edison%27s_Children |title=Thomas Edison's Children |date=December 16, 2010 |work=IEEE Global History Network |publisher=IEEE |accessdate=June 30, 2011}}</ref> She was the daughter of the inventor [[Lewis Miller (philanthropist)|Lewis Miller]], co-founder of the [[Chautauqua Institution]], and a benefactor of [[Methodist]] charities. They also had three children together:
* Madeleine Edison (1888–1979), who married [[John Eyre Sloane]].<ref>{{cite news |coauthors=
|title=Madeleine Edison a Bride. Inventor's Daughter Married to J. E. Sloan by Mgr. Brann
|url= |quote= |work=New York Times |date=June 18, 1914}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |coauthors= |title=Mrs. John Eyre Sloane Has a Son at the Harbor Sanitarium Here |url= |quote= |work=New York Times |date=January 10, 1931}}</ref>
* [[Charles Edison]] (1890–1969), [[Governor of New Jersey]] (1941–1944), who took over his father's company and experimental laboratories upon his father's death.<ref>{{cite news |title=Charles Edison, 78, Ex-Governor Of Jersey and U.S. Aide, Is Dead |date=August 1969 |work=New York Times}}</ref>
* [[Theodore Miller Edison]] (1898–1992), (MIT Physics 1923), credited with more than 80 patents.

Mina outlived Thomas Edison, dying on August 24, 1947.<ref>{{cite news |coauthors= |title=Edison's Widow Very III
|url= |quote= |work=New York Times |date=August 21, 1947}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |coauthors= |title=Rites for Mrs. Edison |url= |quote= |work=New York Times |date=August 26, 1947}}</ref>

Wanting to be an inventor, but not having much of an aptitude for it, Thomas Edison's son, Thomas Alva Edison Jr.. became a problem for his father and his father's business. Starting in the 1890s, Thomas Jr. became involved in [[snake oil]] products and shady and fraudulent enterprises producing products being sold to the public as "''The Latest Edison Discovery''". The situation became so bad that Thomas Sr. had to take his son to court to stop the practices, finally agreeing to pay Thomas Jr. an allowance of $35.00 ({{Inflation|US|35.00|1885|fmt=eq|r=0}}{{Inflation-fn|US}}) per week, in exchange for not using the Edison name; the son began using aliases, such as Burton Willard. Thomas Jr., suffering from alcoholism, depression and ill health, worked at several menial jobs, but by 1931 (towards the end of his life) he would obtain a role in the Edison company, thanks to the intervention of his brother.<ref>{{cite web |title=LOST IN HISTORY: Thomas A. Edison, Junior |author=René Rondeau |date=1997 |url=http://edisontinfoil.com/taejr/edisonjr.htm |accessdate=December 30, 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cit web |title=Thomas Alva Edison Jr |publisher=[[National Park Service]] |url=https://www.nps.gov/index.htm |accessdate=December 30, 2017}}</ref>

==Views==
===On politics, religion, and metaphysics===
Historian Paul Israel has characterized Edison as a "[[Freethought|freethinker]]".<ref name=Israel /> Edison was heavily influenced by [[Thomas Paine]]'s ''[[The Age of Reason]]''.<ref name=Israel /> Edison defended Paine's "scientific [[deism]]", saying, "He has been called an [[atheism|atheist]], but atheist he was not. Paine believed in a supreme intelligence, as representing the idea which other men often express by the name of deity."<ref name=Israel /> In 1878, Edison joined the [[Theosophical Society]] in New Jersey<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://tsmembers.org/|title=Theosophical Society Members 1875-1942 – Historical membership list of the Theosophical Society (Adyar) 1875-1942|website=tsmembers.org|language=en-US|access-date=2018-10-08}}</ref>, but according to its founder, [[Helena Blavatsky|H. P. Blavatsky]], he was not a very active member<ref>{{Cite book|title=Collected Writings, Vol. XII|last=Blavatsky|first=Helena Petrovna|publisher=Theosophical Publishing House|year=1980|isbn=|location=Wheaton, IL|pages=130}}</ref>. In an October 2, 1910, interview in the ''[[New York Times Magazine]]'', Edison stated:
<blockquote>
Nature is what we know. We do not know the gods of religions. And nature is not kind, or merciful, or loving. If God made me — the fabled God of the three qualities of which I spoke: mercy, kindness, love — He also made the fish I catch and eat. And where do His mercy, kindness, and love for that fish come in? No; nature made us — nature did it all — not the gods of the religions.<ref>{{cite news |coauthors= |title="No Immortality of the Soul" says Thomas A. Edison. In Fact, He Doesn't Believe There Is a Soul — Human Beings Only an Aggregate of Cells and the Brain Only a Wonderful Machine, Says Wizard of Electricity |url= |quote=Thomas A. Edison in the following interview for the first time speaks to the public on the vital subjects of the human soul and immortality. It will be bound to be a most fascinating, an amazing statement, from one of the most notable and interesting men of the age ... Nature is what we know. We do not know the gods of religions. And nature is not kind, or merciful, or loving. If God made me — the fabled God of the three qualities of which I spoke: mercy, kindness, love — He also made the fish I catch and eat. And where do His mercy, kindness, and love for that fish come in? No; nature made us — nature did it all — not the gods of the religions. |work=New York Times |date=October 2, 1910}}</ref>
</blockquote>
Edison was accused of being an atheist for those remarks, and although he did not allow himself to be drawn into the controversy publicly, he clarified himself in a private letter:
<blockquote>You have misunderstood the whole article, because you jumped to the conclusion that it denies the existence of God. There is no such denial, what you call God I call Nature, the Supreme intelligence that rules matter. All the article states is that it is doubtful in my opinion if our intelligence or soul or whatever one may call it lives hereafter as an entity or disperses back again from whence it came, scattered amongst the cells of which we are made.<ref name=Israel /></blockquote>

He also stated, "I do not believe in the God of the theologians; but that there is a Supreme Intelligence I do not doubt."<ref>''[https://books.google.com/books?id=75ldAAAAMAAJ&q=%22I+do+not+believe+in+the+God+of+the+theologians;+but+that+there+is+a+Supreme+Intelligence+I+do+not+doubt%22&dq=%22I+do+not+believe+in+the+God+of+the+theologians;+but+that+there+is+a+Supreme+Intelligence+I+do+not+doubt%22&hl=es&sa=X&ei=QDQyUrD0NuPs2wWTwoGADQ&ved=0CGQQ6AEwBg The Freethinker]'' (1970), G.W. Foote & Company, Volume 90, p. 147</ref>

[[Nonviolence]] was key to Edison's moral views, and when asked to serve as a naval consultant for World War I, he specified he would work only on defensive weapons and later noted, "I am proud of the fact that I never invented weapons to kill." Edison's philosophy of nonviolence extended to animals as well, about which he stated: "Nonviolence leads to the highest ethics, which is the goal of all evolution. Until we stop harming all other living beings, we are still savages."<ref>Cited in [https://books.google.com/books?id=DtjWFiDKsJ0C&pg=PA37&dq=%22Still+savages%22+edison&ei=KiHMSLJSiNzKBIiglYsJ&sig=ACfU3U2IXFOuvGUriygDwhEkgvqyaefwEg Innovate Like Edison: The Success System of America's Greatest Inventor] by Sarah Miller Caldicott, Michael J. Gelb, page 37.</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.stephen-knapp.com/vegetarianism_quotes_from_noteworthy_people.htm|title=Vegetarianism Quotes from Noteworthy People|publisher=}}</ref> He was a [[vegetarian]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://minesgreencircle.wordpress.com/2011/04/20/10-genius-vegetarians/|title=10 Genius Vegetarians|work=Mines Green Circle}}</ref> but not a [[vegan]] in actual practice, at least near the end of his life.<ref name="Israel"/>

In 1920, Edison set off a media sensation when he told [[B. C. Forbes]] of ''[[American Magazine]]'' that he was working on a "spirit phone" to allow communication with the dead, a story which other newspapers and magazines repeated.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.gereports.com/edisons-forgotten-invention-a-phone-that-calls-the-dead/|title=Edison's Forgotten 'Invention': A Phone That Calls the Dead|date=October 28, 2010|publisher=GE Reports|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131111162640/http://www.gereports.com/edisons-forgotten-invention-a-phone-that-calls-the-dead/|archivedate=November 11, 2013|df=mdy-all}}</ref> Edison later disclaimed the idea, telling the ''New York Times'' in 1926 that "I really had nothing to tell him, but I hated to disappoint him so I thought up this story about communicating with spirits, but it was all a joke."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.patentplaques.com/blog/?p=1026|title=Invention Geek – Edison Spirit Phone?}}</ref>

===On the monetary system===

Thomas Edison was an advocate for monetary reform in the United States. He was ardently opposed to the [[gold standard]] and debt-based money. Famously, he was quoted in the New York Times stating "Gold is a relic of Julius Caesar, and [[interest]] is an invention of Satan."<ref name="query.nytimes.com">{{cite news |url=https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1921/12/06/98768710.pdf |title=Ford sees wealth in muscle shoals|work=[[The New York Times]] |format=PDF |accessdate=February 24, 2013 |date=December 6, 1921}}</ref>

In the same article, he expounded upon the absurdity of a monetary system in which the taxpayer of the United States, in need of a loan, can be compelled to pay in return perhaps double the principal, or even greater sums, due to interest. His basic point was that, if the Government can produce debt-based money, it could equally as well produce money that was a credit to the taxpayer.<ref name="query.nytimes.com"/>

He thought at length about the subject of money in 1921 and 1922. In May 1922, he published a proposal, entitled "A Proposed Amendment to the Federal Reserve Banking System".<ref>Edison, 1922</ref> In it, he detailed an explanation of a commodity-backed currency, in which the Federal Reserve would issue interest-free currency to farmers, based on the value of commodities they produced. During a publicity tour that he took with friend and fellow inventor, [[Henry Ford]], he spoke publicly about his desire for monetary reform. For insight, he corresponded with prominent academic and banking professionals. In the end, however, Edison's proposals failed to find support and were eventually abandoned.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Hammes |first1=D.L. |last2=Wills |first2=D.T.|title=Thomas Edison's Monetary Option|journal=Journal of the History of Economic Thought|year=2006 |volume=28|issue=3|page=295}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Hammes |first=David L.|title=Harvesting Gold: Thomas Edison's Experiment to Re-Invent American Money|publisher=Mahler Publishing|date=2012}}</ref>

==Awards==
[[File:Abraham Archibald Anderson - Thomas Alva Edison - Google Art Project.jpg|thumb|Portrait of Edison by [[Abraham Archibald Anderson]] (1890), [[National Portrait Gallery (United States)|National Portrait Gallery]]]]
The [[President of France|President]] of the [[French Third Republic|Third French Republic]], [[Jules Grévy]], on the recommendation of his [[Minister of Foreign Affairs (France)|Minister of Foreign Affairs]], [[Jules Barthélemy-Saint-Hilaire]], and with the presentations of the [[Minister of Posts, Telegraphs, and Telephones (France)|Minister of Posts and Telegraphs]], [[Louis Adolphe Cochery|Louis Cochery]], designated Edison with the [[Légion d'honneur#The Order and other countries|''distinction'']] of an [[Legion of Honour|Officer of the Legion of Honour]] ([[Légion d'honneur]]) by decree on November 10, 1881;<ref>[http://www.nndb.com/honors/139/000048992/ NNDB online website]. The same decree awarded German physicist [[Hermann von Helmholtz]] with the designation of Grand Officer of the Legion of Honor, as well as [[Alexander Graham Bell]]. The decree preamble cited ''"for services provided to the Congress and to the International Electrical Exhibition"''</ref> Edison was also named a Chevalier in the Legion in 1879, and a Commander in 1889.<ref name=BIO />

In 1887, Edison won the [[Matteucci Medal]]. In 1890, he was elected a member of the [[Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences]].

The [[Philadelphia City Council]] named Edison the recipient of the [[John Scott Medal]] in 1889.<ref name=BIO />

In 1899, Edison was awarded the [[Edward Longstreth Medal]] of [[The Franklin Institute]].<ref name="LongstrethMedal_Laureates">{{cite web |url=http://www.fi.edu/winners/show_results.faw?gs=&ln=&fn=&keyword=&subject=&award=LONG+&sy=1898&ey=1900&name=Submit |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140222041126/http://www.fi.edu/winners/show_results.faw?gs=&ln=&fn=&keyword=&subject=&award=LONG+&sy=1898&ey=1900&name=Submit |dead-url=yes |archive-date=February 22, 2014 |title=Franklin Laureate Database – Edward Longstreth Medal 1899 Laureates |publisher=[[Franklin Institute]] |accessdate=November 18, 2011 }}</ref>

He was named an Honorable Consulting Engineer at the [[Louisiana Purchase Exposition]] [[World's fair]] in 1904.<ref name=BIO />

In 1908, Edison received the American Association of Engineering Societies [[John Fritz Medal]].<ref name=BIO />

In 1915, Edison was awarded [[Franklin Medal]] of [[The Franklin Institute]] for discoveries contributing to the foundation of industries and the well-being of the human race.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.fi.edu/learn/case-files/edison/reward.html |title=Thomas Alva Edison – Acknowledgement |work=The Franklin Institute |accessdate=February 24, 2013 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130107211052/http://www.fi.edu/learn/case-files/edison/reward.html |archivedate=January 7, 2013 |df=mdy-all }}</ref>

In 1920, the [[United States Navy]] department awarded him the [[Navy Distinguished Service Medal]].<ref name=BIO>{{cite book|last=Kennelly|first=Arthur E.|title=Biographical Memoir of Thomas Alva Edison|year=1932|publisher=National Academy of Sciences|pages=300–301|url=http://books.nap.edu/html/biomems/tedison.pdf}}</ref>

In 1923, the [[American Institute of Electrical Engineers]] created the Edison Medal and he was its first recipient.<ref name=BIO />

In 1927, he was granted membership in the [[National Academy of Sciences]].<ref name=BIO />

On May 29, 1928, Edison received the [[Congressional Gold Medal]].<ref name=BIO />

In 1983, the [[United States Congress]], pursuant to Senate Joint Resolution 140 (Public Law 97—198), designated February 11, Edison's birthday, as National [[Inventor's Day]].<ref>{{cite web| url=http://www.reagan.utexas.edu/archives/speeches/1983/11283i.htm |title=Proclamation 5013 – National Inventors' Day, 1983 |work=Ronald Reagan Presidential Library |accessdate=February 24, 2013}}</ref>

''[[Life (magazine)|Life]]'' magazine (USA), in a special double issue in 1997, placed Edison first in the list of the "100 Most Important People in the Last 1000 Years", noting that the [[light bulb]] he promoted "lit up the world". In the 2005 television series ''[[The Greatest American]]'', he was voted by viewers as the fifteenth greatest.

In 2008, Edison was inducted in the [[New Jersey Hall of Fame]].

In 2010, Edison was honored with a [[Technical Grammy Award]].

In 2011, Edison was inducted into the [[Entrepreneur Walk of Fame]] and named a [[Great Floridian]] by the Florida Governor and Cabinet.<ref>{{cite web|title=Great Floridian Program|url=http://www.flheritage.com/preservation/floridian/index.cfm|accessdate=April 2, 2012}}</ref>

==Tributes==

===Places and people named for Edison===
[[File:Thomas Edison 3c 1947 issue U.S. stamp.jpg|thumb|right|Thomas Edison commemorative stamp, issued on the 100th anniversary of his birth in 1947]]
Several places have been named after Edison, most notably the town of [[Edison, New Jersey]]. [[Thomas Edison State University]], nationally known for adult learners, is in [[Trenton, New Jersey]]. Two community colleges are named for him: [[Edison State College]] (now [[Florida SouthWestern State College]]) in Fort Myers, Florida, and
Edison Community College in [[Piqua, Ohio]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.edison.cc.oh.us/ |title=Edison Community College (Ohio) |publisher=Edison.cc.oh.us |accessdate=January 29, 2009 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090225065223/http://www.edison.cc.oh.us/ |archivedate=February 25, 2009 |df=mdy-all }}</ref> There are numerous high schools named after Edison (see [[Edison High School (disambiguation)|Edison High School]]) and other schools including [[Thomas A. Edison Middle School]]. Footballer [[Pelé]]'s father originally named him Edson, as a tribute to the inventor of the light bulb, but the name was incorrectly listed on his birth certificate as "Edison".<ref>{{cite book |title=Pelé: The Autobiography
|author=Pelé |author2=Orlando Duarte |author3=Alex Bellos |year=2006 |publisher=[[Simon & Schuster]] UK Ltd
|location=London |isbn=978-0-7432-7582-8 |page=14 |url=http://books.simonandschuster.com.au/Pele-The-Autobiography/Pele/9781416511212/excerpt_with_id/6070
|accessdate=October 2, 2010}}</ref>

The small town of [[Alva, Florida|Alva]] just east of Fort Myers took Edison's middle name.

In 1883, the City Hotel in [[Sunbury, Pennsylvania]] was the first building to be lit with Edison's three-wire system. The hotel was renamed The [[Hotel Edison (Sunbury, Pennsylvania)|Hotel Edison]] upon Edison's return to the city on 1922.<ref name=sunbury>{{cite web |url=http://www.cityofsunbury.com/Pages/Community/Sunbury%20History/TheEdisonHotel.aspx |title=The Edison Hotel |work=City of Sunbury |accessdate=February 24, 2013}}</ref>

[[Lake Thomas A Edison]] in [[California]] was named after Edison to mark the 75th anniversary of the [[incandescent light bulb]].<ref name=sce>{{cite web|url=http://asset.sce.com/Documents/Environment%20-%20Power%20Generation/30.pdf |title=Description of the Big Creek System |work=Southern California Edison |accessdate=December 21, 2012 }}{{dead link|date=June 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>

Edison was on hand to turn on the lights at the [[Hotel Edison]] in [[New York City]] when it opened in 1931.<ref name="Hotel Edison FAQ">{{cite web |url=http://www.edisonhotelnyc.com/default.aspx?pg=faq |title=Frequently Asked Questions |work=[[Hotel Edison]] |accessdate=February 24, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130424064011/http://www.edisonhotelnyc.com/default.aspx?pg=faq |archive-date=April 24, 2013 |dead-url=yes |df=mdy-all }}</ref>

Three bridges around the [[United States]] have been named in Edison's honor: the [[Edison Bridge (New Jersey)|Edison Bridge in New Jersey]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.state.nj.us/transportation/publicat/historyedisonbr.pdf |title=The History & Technology of the Edison Bridge & Driscoll Bridge over the Raritan River, New Jersey |work=New Jersey Department of Transportation |year=2003 |accessdate=February 24, 2013}}</ref> the [[Edison Bridge (Florida)|Edison Bridge in Florida]],<ref>{{cite book |title=Thomas Edison: The Fort Myers Connection |last=Solomon |first=Irvin D. |year=2001 |isbn=9780738513690 |page=9 |publisher=[[Arcadia Publishing]]}}</ref> and the [[Edison Bridge (Ohio)|Edison Bridge in Ohio]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://codes.ohio.gov/orc/5533.18 |title=5533.18 Thomas A. Edison memorial bridge |work=Lawriter LLC |accessdate=February 25, 2013}}</ref>

In space, his name is commemorated in [[asteroid]] [[742 Edisona]].

===Museums and memorials===
[[File:Thomas Edison 1.jpg|thumb|Statue of young Thomas Edison by the railroad tracks in Port Huron, Michigan.]]

In West Orange, New Jersey, the {{convert|13.5|acre|ha|abbr=off}} Glenmont estate is maintained and operated by the [[National Park Service]] as the [[Edison National Historic Site]], as is his nearby laboratory and workshops including the reconstructed [[Edison's Black Maria|"Black Maria"]]—the world's first movie studio.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nps.gov/edis/|title=Thomas Edison National Historical Park (U.S. National Park Service) |publisher=Nps.gov |date=December 15, 2013 |accessdate=December 31, 2013}}</ref> The [[Thomas Alva Edison Memorial Tower and Museum]] is in the town of Edison, New Jersey.<ref>[http://www.menloparkmuseum.org/tower-restoration Menlo Park Museum, Tower-Restoration] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100923114501/http://menloparkmuseum.org/tower-restoration |date=September 23, 2010 }}. Retrieved September 28, 2010.</ref> In [[Beaumont, Texas]], there is an [[Edison Museum]], though Edison never visited there.<ref>{{cite book |title=Thomas Edison: Life of an Electrifying Man |last=Biographiq |year=2008 |isbn=9781599862163 |page=32 |publisher=Filiquarian Publishing, LLC.}}</ref>
The [[Port Huron Museum]], in [[Port Huron, Michigan]], restored the original depot that Thomas Edison worked out of as a young news butcher. The depot has been named the [[Thomas Edison Depot Museum]].<ref>[http://www.phmuseum.org/drupal/about/depot Thomas Edison Depot] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120121044332/http://www.phmuseum.org/drupal/about/depot |date=January 21, 2012 }}. Retrieved September 28, 2010.</ref> The town has many Edison historical landmarks, including the graves of Edison's parents, and a monument along the [[St. Clair River]]. Edison's influence can be seen throughout this city of 32,000.

In Detroit, the Edison Memorial Fountain in [[Grand Circus Park Historic District|Grand Circus Park]] was created to honor his achievements. The limestone fountain was dedicated October 21, 1929, the fiftieth anniversary of the creation of the lightbulb.<ref>[http://www.buildingsofdetroit.com/places/ef Edison Memorial Fountain] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100927121621/http://buildingsofdetroit.com/places/ef |date=September 27, 2010 }} at Buildings of Detroit. Retrieved September 28, 2010.</ref> On the same night, [[The Henry Ford|The Edison Institute]] was dedicated in nearby [[Dearborn, Michigan|Dearborn]].

He was inducted into the [[Automotive Hall of Fame]] in 1969.{{citation needed|date=December 2017}}

A [[Thomas Edison (Cottrill)|bronze statue of Edison]] was placed in the [[National Statuary Hall Collection]] at the [[United States Capitol]] in 2016, with the formal dedication ceremony held on September 20 of that year. The Edison statue replaced one of 19th-century state governor [[William Allen (governor)|William Allen]] that had been one of Ohio's two allowed contributions to the collection.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.dispatch.com/content/stories/local/2016/09/21/thomas-edison-statue-dedicated-in-u-s--capitols-statuary-hall.html |title=Thomas Edison statue dedicated in U.S. Capitol's Statuary Hall |first=Jessica |last=Wehrman |newspaper=[[The Columbus Dispatch]] |date=September 21, 2016 |accessdate=February 3, 2017}}</ref>

===Companies bearing Edison's name===
[[File:Эдисон Томас Альва фото ЖЗЛ.JPG|thumb|upright=0.9|Edison in 1915]]
* Edison General Electric, merged with [[Thomson-Houston Electric Company]] to form [[General Electric]]
* [[Commonwealth Edison]], now part of [[Exelon]]
* [[Consolidated Edison]]
* [[Edison International]]
* [[Detroit Edison]], a unit of [[DTE Energy]]
* [[Edison S.p.A.]], a unit of Italenergia
* Trade association the [[Edison Electric Institute]], a lobbying and research group for investor-owned utilities in the United States
* [[Edison Ore-Milling Company]]
* [[Edison Portland Cement Company]]
* Ohio Edison (merged with Centerior in 1997 to form [[First Energy]])
* [[Southern California Edison]]

===Awards named in honor of Edison===
The [[Edison Medal]] was created on February 11, 1904, by a group of Edison's friends and associates. Four years later the [[American Institute of Electrical Engineers]] (AIEE), later [[Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers|IEEE]], entered into an agreement with the group to present the medal as its highest award. The first medal was presented in 1909 to [[Elihu Thomson]]. It is the oldest award in the area of [[electrical engineering|electrical and electronics engineering]], and is presented annually "for a career of meritorious achievement in electrical science, electrical engineering or the electrical arts."

In the Netherlands, the major music awards are named the [[Edison Award]] after him. The award is an annual Dutch music prize, awarded for outstanding achievements in the music industry, and is one of the oldest music awards in the world, having been presented since 1960.

The [[American Society of Mechanical Engineers]] concedes the Thomas A. Edison Patent Award to individual patents since 2000.<ref>{{cite web|title=Thomas A. Edison Patent Award |publisher=[[American Society of Mechanical Engineers]] |url=http://www.asme.org/Governance/Honors/SocietyAwards/Thomas_Edison_Patent_Award.cfm |archiveurl=https://www.webcitation.org/5umTifXDW?url=http://www.asme.org/Governance/Honors/SocietyAwards/Thomas_Edison_Patent_Award.cfm |archivedate=December 6, 2010 |deadurl=no |df= }}</ref>

===Other items named after Edison===
The [[United States Navy]] named the [[USS Edison (DD-439)|USS ''Edison'' (DD-439)]], a [[Gleaves class destroyer]], in his honor in 1940. The ship was decommissioned a few months after the end of World War II.<ref>{{cite web|title=Edison|url=http://www.history.navy.mil/research/histories/ship-histories/danfs/e/edison.html|publisher=Naval History and Heritage Command|accessdate=May 12, 2015}}</ref> In 1962, the Navy commissioned [[USS Thomas A. Edison (SSBN-610)|USS ''Thomas A. Edison'' (SSBN-610)]], a fleet ballistic missile nuclear-powered submarine.<ref>{{cite web|title=Thomas A. Edison|url=http://www.history.navy.mil/research/histories/ship-histories/danfs/t/thomas-a-edison.html|publisher=Naval History and Heritage Command|accessdate=May 12, 2015|date=April 14, 2015}}</ref>

===In popular culture===
{{Main|Thomas Edison in popular culture}}

Thomas Edison has appeared in [[popular culture]] as a character in novels, films, comics and video games. His prolific inventing helped make him an icon and he has made appearances in popular culture during his lifetime down to the present day. Edison is also portrayed in popular culture as an adversary of [[Nikola Tesla]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/alexknapp/2012/05/18/nikola-tesla-wasnt-god-and-thomas-edison-wasnt-the-devil |title=Nikola Tesla Wasn't God and Thomas Edison Wasn't the Devil |last=Knapp |first=Alex |date=May 18, 2012 |website=Forbes |access-date=October 15, 2017}}</ref>

"Camping with Henry and Tom", a fictional play based on Edison's camping trips with Henry Ford, written by Mark St.Gemain. First presented at Lucille Lortel Theatre, New York, February 20, 1995.{{citation needed|date=July 2017}}

On February 11, 2011, on what would have been Thomas Edison's 164th birthday, [[Google]]'s homepage featured an animated [[Google Doodle]] commemorating his many inventions. When the cursor was hovered over the doodle, a series of mechanisms seemed to move, causing a lightbulb to glow.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.google.com/doodles/thomas-edisons-birthday |title=Google Doodle: February 11, 2011 – Thomas Edison's Birthday}}</ref>

==List of people who worked for Edison==
The following is a list of people who worked for Thomas Edison in his laboratories at Menlo Park or West Orange or at the subsidiary electrical businesses that he supervised.
* [[Edward Goodrich Acheson]] – chemist, worked at Menlo Park 1880–1884
* [[William Symes Andrews]] – started at the Menlo Park machine shop 1879
* [[Charles Batchelor]] – "chief experimental assistant"
* [[John I. Beggs]] – manager of [[Edison Illuminating Company]] in New York, 1886
* [[William Kennedy Dickson]] – joined Menlo Park in 1823, worked on the motion picture camera
* [[Justus B. Entz]] – joined [[Edison Machine Works]] in 1887
* [[Reginald Fessenden]] – worked at the [[Edison Machine Works]] in 1886
* [[Henry Ford]] – engineer [[Edison Illuminating Company]] Detroit, Michigan, 1891–1899
* [[William Joseph Hammer]] – started as laboratory assistant Menlo Park in 1879
* [[Miller Reese Hutchison]] – inventor of hearing aid
* [[Edward Hibberd Johnson]] – started in 1909, chief engineer at West Orange laboratory 1912–1918
* [[Samuel Insull]] – started in 1881, rose to become VP of General Electric (1892) then President of Chicago Edison
* [[Kunihiko Iwadare]] – joined [[Edison Machine Works]] in 1887
* [[Francis Jehl]] – laboratory assistant Menlo Park 1879–1882
* [[Arthur E. Kennelly]] – engineer, experimentalist at West Orange laboratory 1887–1894
* [[John Kruesi]] – started 1872, was head machinist, at Newark, Menlo Park, [[Edison Machine Works]]
* [[Lewis Howard Latimer]] – hired 1884 as a draftsman, continued working for General Electric
* [[John W. Lieb]] – worked at the [[Edison Machine Works]] in 1881
* [[Thomas Commerford Martin]] – electrical engineer, worked at Menlo Park 1877–1879
* [[George F. Morrison]] – started at Edison Lamp Works 1882
* [[Edwin Stanton Porter]] – joined the [[Edison Manufacturing Company]] 1899
* [[Frank J. Sprague]] – Joined Menlo Park 1883, became known as the "Father of Electric Traction".
* [[Nikola Tesla]] – electrical engineer and inventor, worked at the [[Edison Machine Works]] in 1884
* [[Francis Robbins Upton]] – mathematician/physicist, joined Menlo Park 1878
* [[Theo Wangemann]] - Personal assistant to Edison

==See also==
{{Portal|Thomas Edison}}
{{Wikipedia books|Thomas Edison}}
* [[List of Edison patents]]
* [[Thomas Alva Edison Birthplace]]
* [[Thomas Edison National Historical Park]]
* [[Edison Pioneers]] – a group formed in 1918 by employees and other associates of Thomas Edison

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==Bibliography==
{{external media| float = right| video1 = [https://www.c-span.org/video/?63449-1/edison-inventing-century ''Booknotes'' interview with Neil Baldwin on ''Edison: Inventing the Century'', March 19, 1995], [[C-SPAN]]| video2 = [https://www.c-span.org/video/?178806-1/empires-light-edison-tesla-westinghouse ''Booknotes'' interview with Jill Jonnes on ''Empires of Light'', October 26, 2003], [[C-SPAN]]}}
{{Refbegin|30em}}
* {{Cite book |title=The Florida Life of Thomas Edison |first=Michele Wehrwein. |last=Albion|year=2008 |isbn=978-0-8130-3259-7 |publisher=University Press of Florida |location=Gainesville}}
* {{Cite book |title=The Search for Thomas Edison's Boyhood Home |first=Glen J. |last=Adams |year=2004 |isbn=978-1-4116-1361-4}}
* {{Cite book |first=Ernst |last=Angel |title=Edison. Sein Leben und Erfinden |location=Berlin |publisher=Ernst Angel Verlag |year=1926}}
* {{Cite book |title=Edison: Inventing the Century |first=Neil |last=Baldwin |publisher=University of Chicago Press |year=2001 |isbn=978-0-226-03571-0}}
* {{Cite book |title=Edison: The man who made the future |first=Ronald William |last=Clark |year=1977 |isbn=978-0-354-04093-8 |publisher=Macdonald and Jane's |location=London: Macdonald & Jane's}}
* {{Cite book |title=A Streak of Luck |first=Robert |last=Conot |publisher=Seaview Books |location=New York |year=1979 |isbn=978-0-87223-521-2}}
* {{Cite book |title=Fleet Fire: Thomas Edison and the Pioneers of the Electric Revolution |first=L. J.|last=Davis |publisher=Doubleday |location=New York |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-385-47927-1}}
* {{Cite book |title=Edison and the Electric Chair |first=Mark |last=Essig |isbn=978-0-7509-3680-4 |year=2004 |publisher=Sutton |location=Stroud}}
* {{Cite book |first=Mark |last=Essig |title=Edison & the Electric Chair: A Story of Light and Death |location=New York |publisher=Walker & Company |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-8027-1406-0}}
* {{Cite book |first=Paul |last=Israel |title=Edison: A Life of Invention |publisher=Wiley |location=New York |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-471-52942-2}}
* {{Cite book |first=Jill |last=Jonnes |title=Empires of Light: Edison, Tesla, Westinghouse, and the Race to Electrify the World |location= New York |publisher=Random House |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-375-50739-7}}
* {{Cite book |last=Josephson |first=Matthew |title=Edison |year=1959 |publisher=McGraw Hill |isbn=978-0-07-033046-7}}
* {{Cite book |last=Koenigsberg |first=Allen |title=Edison Cylinder Records, 1889–1912 |year=1987 |publisher=APM Press |isbn=0-937612-07-3}}
* {{Cite book |title=Working at Inventing: Thomas A. Edison and the Menlo Park Experience |author=Pretzer, William S. (ed). |publisher=Henry Ford Museum & Greenfield Village |location=Dearborn, Michigan |year=1989 |isbn=978-0-933728-33-2}}
* {{Cite book |title=The Wizard of Menlo Park: How Thomas Alva Edison Invented the Modern World |first=Randall E. |last=Stross |publisher=Crown |year=2007 |isbn=1-4000-4762-5}}
{{Refend}}

== External links ==
{{external links|section|date=January 2015}}
{{commons}}
{{wikiquote}}
{{wikisource|Author:Thomas Edison}}

'''Museums'''
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070601215151/http://www.menloparkmuseum.com/ Menlo Park Museum and Edison Memorial Tower]
* [http://www.nps.gov/edis/index.htm Thomas Edison National Historical Park] (National Park Service)
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20060424080435/http://www.hfmgv.org/exhibits/edison/ Edison exhibit and Menlo Park Laboratory at Henry Ford Museum]
* [http://www.edisonmuseum.org/ Edison Museum]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20060503223127/http://phmuseum.org/depot/depot.htm Edison Depot Museum]
* [http://www.tomedison.org/ Edison Birthplace Museum]
* [http://www.edisonhouse.org/ Thomas Edison House]

'''Information and media'''
* {{Britannica|179233}}
* {{In Our Time|Thomas Edison|b00wdjr8|Thomas_Edison}}
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KgwY2SdRJ_4 Interview with Thomas Edison in 1931]
* [http://ariwatch.com/VS/TheDiaryOfThomasEdison.htm The Diary of Thomas Edison]
* {{Gutenberg author |id=Edison,+Thomas+A.+(Thomas+Alva)}}
* {{Internet Archive author |sname=Thomas Alva Edison}}
* [https://www.archives.gov/exhibits/american_originals_iv/sections/thomas_edison_patent.html Edison's patent application for the light bulb] at the National Archives.
* {{IMDb name|id=0249379|name=Thomas Edison}}
* [https://www.wired.com/science/discoveries/news/2008/01/dayintech_0104? "January 4, 1903: Edison Fries an Elephant to Prove His Point"] – ''[[Wired (magazine)|Wired]]'' article about Edison's "macabre form of a series of animal electrocutions using AC."
* [http://www.nps.gov/nr/twhp/wwwlps/lessons/25edison/25edison.htm "The Invention Factory: Thomas Edison's Laboratories"] National Park Service (NPS)
* [http://www.shapell.org/Collection/Historical-Figures/Edison-Thomas Thomas Edison Personal Manuscripts and Letters]
{{Gutenberg|no=820|name=Edison, His Life and Inventions}} by Frank Lewis Dyer and Thomas Commerford Martin.
* {{Internet Archive short film|id=gov.archives.arc.49442|name=''Story of Thomas Alva Edison''}}
* [http://edison.rutgers.edu/ Edison Papers] Rutgers.
* [http://www.edisonian.com/ Edisonian Museum Antique Electrics]
* [http://www.thomasedison.org Edison Innovation Foundation] – [[Non-profit foundation]] supporting the legacy of Thomas Edison.
* {{Find a Grave|grid=1630|name=Thomas Alva Edison}}
* [http://hfha.org/the-ford-story/the-illustrious-vagabonds The Illustrious Vagabonds] Henry Ford Heritage Association
* [https://books.google.com/books?id=vuQDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA614&dq=Popular+Mechanics+1931+curtiss&hl=en&ei=sZj0TNiVFcPXngeTp8W2CQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=4&ved=0CDMQ6AEwAw#v=onepage&q=Popular%20Mechanics%201931%20curtiss&f=true "The World's Greatest Inventor"] October 1931, ''[[Popular Mechanics]]''. Detailed, illustrated article.
* 14 minutes "instructional" film with fictional elements [https://archive.org/details/filmcollectief-01-661 The boyhood of Thomas Edison] from 1964, produced by Coronet, published by archive.org
* {{YouTube|id=IfFIeUgt_7Q "A Day with Thomas A. Edison"}} – 1922 – A rare documentary silent film
* [https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/americanexperience/films/light "Edison's Miracle of Light"] PBS – ''American Experience''. Premiered January 2015.
* {{PM20|FID=pe/004481}}

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{{Thomas Edison}}
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